THE ETHERIO-ATOMIC PHILOSOPHY OF FORCE.
I.—Atoms.
Atoms are the primary and indivisible particles of things. To understand them fully would be almost to understand infinity. In fact we cannot understand the exact nature of the simplest object without apprehending its atomic constitution. We shall not be real philosophers until we can reach far back toward primates and thence onward toward ultimates. We shall be but poor chemists so long as we cannot tell the law of atomic action in any substance whatever, or the basic principles of chemical affinity.
II.—Force.
Force is a leading phenomenon of the universe. Without it, all movements of worlds, all chemical affinities, all wonders of light, color, sound and motion, all attractions and repulsions, all life, human, animal and vegetable, in fact every impulse of thought or affection itself must forever cease. Happy shall we be if we can get even a glimpse of its basic principles, for force and matter include the sum of all things.
III.—The Size of Atoms.
The infinity of smallness in nature is quite as wonderful as the infinity of vastness, and equally beyond all human comprehension or flight of imagination. Persons of large conceptions which lead them far into the grasp of things as they are, are often called visionary by those of smaller conceptions, but the grandest visions and stretches of thought are tame and small compared with the realities of things. Ehrenberg, who investigated the subject of infusoria very extensively by means of the microscope, estimates that an ordinary drop of water, one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, may contain 500 millions of these animalcules, and remarks that "all infusoria, even the smallest monads are organized animal bodies and distinctly provided with at least a mouth and internal nutritive apparatus." As each of these must have some tubing and fluidic circulation it would doubtless be safe to estimate its number of atoms as high as 1000. This would make the number of atoms in the animalcules of a drop 500,000,000,000, besides the countless atoms which compose the water itself. The atmospheric bacteria are still smaller, as other scientists have shown. Thompson, by means of numerous experiments, has established the fact that in transparent bodies the atoms are so small as to require 250,000,000 to 5,000,000,000 to extend one inch, and Gaudin calculates for the smallest particles of matter figures much the same as those of Thompson, making the number of atoms for a large pin's head about 8,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (8 sextillions) which, if measured off at the rate of a million a second, would take over 250 million years to complete! This taken in connection with the wonderful and beautiful character of each atom becomes one of the most amazing facts in the universe. But even this is doubtless far below the infinitude of nature's smallness, as the finest ethers must have atoms quite transcending in minuteness all measurements, or comprehension of the human mind.
IV. The Form of Atoms.
1. In the first place atoms are evidently not spherical, as some have supposed, as they would not combine thus properly, and would not so well carry out the law of positive and negative conditions without which all life and action must cease. This will be shown hereafter.
2. The lines of atomic force, are doubtless not in circles, this being contrary to the general untrammeled movements of nature, as the pathway of missiles, cataracts and planets is in the sections of a cone.
3. Some philosophers, believing with Bishop Berkeley that the whole universe is spiritual in its nature, conclude that atoms must be spiritual, or mere circular forces which in some way overlap, combine and crystallize into the forms which we call matter. Others, believing with Hume and Buchner, that matter is the beginning and end of all things, of course consider the atoms merely material.
4. We have seen the folly of these extreme positions in the last chapter, and having learned that everything possesses a finer positive principle, and a coarser negative principle, we may confidently presume that each atom has its imperishable framework, with the definiteness of position which is supposed to belong to materiality, and yet an inconceivable exquisiteness, elasticity and spirit-like freedom and flow of force.
5. What, then, are the lines of atomic force? Let us see if we cannot find a suggestion by noticing what are nature's great lines of force. Our sun, as we have seen, is moving around some greater sun. This greater sun is also moving onward, probably around some still greater centre, and carrying our sun with it. Our sun, under this double motion, then, must describe a vast spiral through the heavens. Again, our earth moves around the sun, and at the same time is carried by the sun around its centre, making a smaller spiral somewhat less than 200,000,000 miles in diameter through the heavens. Then, finally, the moon makes its baby spiral of about half a million miles in diameter around our earth. Thus we have first the great solar spiral, then the telluric spiral around the solar, then the lunar spiral around the telluric, three distinct gradations on nature's favorite trinal plan.
6. Let us suppose now that atoms are in ellipsoids, or rather in the modifications of this form in the ovoid, which, as we have seen, in Chapter First, is the most easy and beautiful of simple enclosed forms. "What nature does generally is beautiful," says Ruskin, and atoms being the most general of all things, we cannot suppose them for a moment to be anything but beautiful. So far, it may be said, we are building on mere supposition, but it will be shown more and more as we advance that there is a ne-essity for this form. One thing in proof of this is the fact that atoms will combine and polarize better by having a smaller end, while, as will be shown, the law of positive and negative action forces one end to be smaller than the other.
7. But where must the lines offeree run, over or through this atom, or both? Let us see. We have ascertained in Chapter First that the spiral, itself the most beautiful of continuous forms, is the great leading law of motion in nature. Let us presume, then, that the spiral direction rules in atoms as well as in worlds, especially as, according to the great unity of law, we must judge the unknown by the known. In fact the spiral is a necessity if we are to get any continuous lines around the atom and have it progress regularly so as to cover its whole form and then convey its force over to the next atom. So far, then, we have the external atom clad with spiral lines of force, or rather, a spiral framework, and tube-work through which, and over which, this force must vibrate and flow.
| Fi:132, Outline of an Atom. |
8. Fig 132 gives a simple representation of this atomic coil or helix, commencing below and moving round and round the atom from left to right, until the other end at 4 is reached. Let us first consider the effect of this external spiral movement which sweeps around with inconceivable rapidity. It is a well known fact in electricity and magnetism that when the conducting wire is wound in a spiral coil, its heat producing power is greatly increased. Another fact which harmonizes with the same thing is that the greater the heat, the greater the expansion, other things being equal, and here we can see just how it is that heat produces expansion, for the more powerful the sweep of forces around the atom, the more it will increase the outward or centrifugal force. One leading principle for the development of heat is that there shall be obstacles to overcome, or a laboring style of movement, and this explains why this ever twisting movement of the spiral is the distinctive one for heat.
9. Let us see how the line of force would work as it vibrates this exquisite wire-work which is untold millions of times finer and more elastic than any wires of copper or steel. Commencing at 1 it gets under greater and greater momentum until it swells the atom out to its greatest size at the middle or a little beyond, and then becoming gradually spent, the coil grows smaller at 3, and reaching the larger negative end at 4, the
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heat-force of the other end is felt through the axial portion and draws it in through the middle of the atom to the smaller end, where the circuit is recommenced.
10. This current of force through the centre of the atom, acting like any fluid under the same circumstances, becomes a vortex and tends to draw the other portions inward by its suction. This, without doubt, is the principle of cold as is proved by the following facts:—1st, it is contracting in its nature, and cold is contracting; 2dly, it moves in the opposite direction from heat which shows why the needle of the galvanometer, connected with the thermo-electric pile, moves in one direction for cold and another for heat, as Tyndall and others have often noticed; 3dly, the swifter the movement of the forces, the more narrow, piercing and contracting is the stream, and this harmonizes with the known effects of cold, which is piercing and contracting in proportion as it becomes intense; 4thly, as a great principle of equilibrium in nature, it is necessary that one part of atomic force should develop cold in a way to balance the heat action, and 5thly, the flow of forces could not be kept up at all were it not for the law of cold, to intensify the law of heat, just as the heat intensifies the law of cold, as will be seen more clearly hereafter.
11. But in order to work properly, there must be a more intense heat-action at the smaller end in order to draw in the forces that reach the negative larger end from the outside. How can this be effected? Is not the heat the greatest at the larger part of the atom where the spiral is most expansive and intense in its action? Yes, so far as this spiral is concerned, but there are other processes by which this may be caused. As nature ever deals with gradations of refinement, and as in the solar system we see three grades of spirals with the smallest encircling the next larger, and this larger encircling one still larger, so we may presume that the atomic system continues the analogy and has different grades of spirals also. The fact also that there are known to be so many grades of force, would argue in favor of different grades of fineness in the atomic coils.
12. Fig 133, presents the main spiral which passes around the atom, then a sub-spiral which encircles the main spiral. This may be called the first spirilla or little spiral. Judging by nature's usual law of trinal gradations there is probably a still finer spirilla that encircles this first one which may be called the second spirilla, and another which encircles the second one, more minute still, and properly constituting the third spirilla. The different grades of forces that flow along this spiral and these spirillae must pass around the atom in the same direction, just as the sun, planets and moon all move along through space in the same direction, namely from west to east.
| Fig 133. Piece of Atomic Spiral with 1st 2nd and 3rd Spirillas. |
V. The Heat End of Atoms.
1. From the foregoing, then, we may now begin to see how one end of the atom will naturally become warmer than the other end, although the spiral itself may be less expanded with heat action. The first spirilla, being much more elastic than the spiral, must spring into its full heat action and power near the positive end, say at 1, and the 2d and 3d spirillae; still sooner. These become more exhausted and feeble at 2, near the negative end, after having imparted their force to the spiral. That is, the 3d spirilla, being most active, quickens the 2d, the 2d quickens the 1st, and the 1st quickens the spiral itself.
2. Another method of intensifying the heat of the positive end is to have the spiral lines nearer together there than at the negative end, as in fig 132, a method which nature probably adopts, as it is absolutely necessary to have the positive and negative distinctions well emphasized to attain the highest power. Does the reader see this important point? By having the external positive end hot it draws all the more powerfully upon the axial current within and thus intensifies the cold, and then again the swifter the cold-producing currents the more will they react and draw upon the heat-currents on the external atom, other things being equal. Thus beautifully does nature develop her intensity of life and action, by causing one extreme to vitalize and balance the other. Action on any other plan would be ruin, or rather action without positive and negative forces would be impossible, and so universal death would ensue.
VI. Nature of Atomic Spirals.
1. As in animal life there are millions of tubes, such as lymphatics, lacteals, capillaries, veins, arteries, nerves, etc., and as in all vegetable growth there are countless tubular ducts to convey the life fluids, so we may conclude that an atom with its intensity of life-like action has its spirals and spirillce in the form of tubes, within which are still finer ethereal juices which constitute its most interior life-force. That these spirals are amazingly elastic is shown by the fact that they expand to a size 2000 times greater in ordinary atmosphere than in water, while in the upper atmosphere, and especially in the ether beyond, they must be far more expanded still.
2. The most common arrangement of atomic spirals is doubtless two-fold, as will be shown hereafter, consisting, 1st, of
coarser and more external groups of spirals such as 2 and 4 in fig. 134, which may be termed extra spirals, and 2dly, finer spirals set farther in, such as 1 and 3, which may be called intra spirals.
The need and existence of these will become more and more apparent as we advance, besides fulfilling nature's analogies. Instead of there being but one intra-spiral at 1 and 3, or but one Faiid intfsXspi^raU extra-spiral as at 2 and 4, there is probably a gradation of several of them placed side by side in all the more complex grades of atoms, say from 3 to 7 in each place. The need of seven spirals in all transparent atoms, in other words in atoms of substances which transmit all the colors as in transparent bodies, will be evident. The positive intra-spirals are grouped at 1, the positive extra-spirals at 2, the negative intra-spirals at 3, the negative-extra spirals at 4, the atomic vortex into which the spirals all sweep with vortical whirl is at 5, the torrent at which the forces become most pointed and swift is at 6, and the axis or axial current from 5 to 6. The curves caused by the vibration of spirals are not shown in the cut, nor are any but the first of the spirillae given and shown as they must be in nature, and there are doubtless points of connection between spirals, spirillae and all other parts of the atom which make it a complete unity.
VII. General Features of Atoms.
1. Years of investigation of what the general form and constitution of atoms must be to harmonize with and furnish a key to the facts discovered by the scientific world, aided by many more years of inquiry into the fundamental principles of nature, have led me to a very positive conclusion that fig. 135 is the general outline of an ordinary atom, especially of one by means of which all the colors can be made manifest. The hundreds of points to prove it correct cannot be given here, but they will appear more and more all through this work in the mysteries which are cleared up thereby, especially in Chapter V. as well as in this chapter. Although the modification of tints, hues and other forces which are manifested through atoms is almost infinite from the fact that atoms of the same substance must vary within certain limits in the size of their spirillae of the same kind, yet facts seem to indicate seven intra-spirals (4) on the outside of atoms for the warm or thermal colors, and which are properly the thermo-lumino group, whereas the same spirals form the principle of the electrical colors while passing through the axis of atoms. These are all named and located in fig. 135, commencing with the largest spirilla for the hot invisible solar rays called thermel, after which is the slightly smaller spirilla for red, another for red-orange, etc. Passing around the atom and becoming smaller and finer, the same spirillae form the channels for the electrical colors by passing into the vortex and through the axis, thermel being converted into blue-green, red into blue, red-orange into indigo-blue, orange into indigo, yellow-orange into violet-indigo, yellow into violet, and yellow-green into dark violet. The group of thermospirals at 3, 3, are called positive, because the spirillae that surround them are larger and the heat greater than the portion of the same group at 5, 5, which are therefore called negative thermospirals. The group 2, embraces the positive color-spirals, but as they are concealed by gliding into the contiguous atoms, it is only the same group at 4 that are visible as thermo-color spirals, or at the vortex above as electro-color spirals. 9 and 10 represent minute streams of ether, which are simply combinations of much finer atoms, that flow from the thermo spirillae and the thermo-lumino spirillae into the same grades of spirillae in the atom above; 7 and 9 are axial ethers which flow from the atom
| Fig. 135. T he general Form of an Atom, including the spirals and 1st Spirilla, together with influx and efflux ethers, represented by dots, which pass through these spirill®. The 2d and 3d spirilla with their stil] finer ethers are not shown. |
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above into the axial spirillae of this atom; 8 represents ethers which flow through the ligo tube, and these and other ethers are represented as passing on through their appropriate channels until they emerge at the torrent end. These ethers sweep through the atom and quicken its spiral wheel-work into new life, just as the winds move a wind-mill, or Atoms joined, the waters a water-wheel, while the atom itself, armed as it is with its vortical spring-work, must have a great reactive suction which draws on these ethereal winds.9
2. Why are ethers drawn from spirillae of one atom to the same kind of spirillae in a contiguous atom, and why does a certain grade of ether exactly harmomize with, and seek out, a certain size of spirilla? For the same reason that a tuning fork or the cord of a piano will be set into vibration by a tone made in its own key. In the case of a piano, a cord vibrates to tones of its own pitch, or in other words, to tones whose waves synchronize with its own vibrations. Let us apply this principle to atoms. The vibratory action of the red spirilla throws the current of ether which passes through it into the eddy-like whirl which just harmonizes in size and form to the red spirilla of the next atom above it with which it comes in contact, and which must necessarily draw it on. This second atom passes it on to the red spirilla of the third, the third to that of the fourth, and so on through millions of miles, so long as there is a spirilla of the right grade to conduct it onward. The same process applies to the orange, or yellow, or any other spiral, and, constituting as it does a fundamental principle of chemical action, the reader should note this point well. The same principle applies to the axial spirals whose lines of force, reaching the positive end at 1, make a sudden dart to the outside and thus in part jolt their contents into the answering spirals of the next atom, the blue ethers of this plunging into the blue spirilla of the next, the violet ethers of this into the violet spirilla of the next, and so on.
3. The ethers are efflux as they flow out of one atom or series of atoms, and influx as they flow into an atom or series of atoms. Thus 9 and 7 are influx, and 6 and 10 efflux ethers. The ethers at the torrent end are powerfully efflux, and have momentum not only from the projectile force of this atom, but from the suctional force of the next, into whose vortex this atom is inserted.
4. It should be noticed that the same spirillae which wind around the outside of atoms on the expansive law of thermism, pass on through the axis on the contracting law of cold, and after becoming the most contracted and intense at the positive end of the atom, suddenly plunge to the outside and again become thermal. Thus the very intensity of the interior cold forces may develop intensity of heat, and we at once see why it is that an object which is so cold as to be 60° F. below zero is said to have an effect similar to that of red hot iron.
5. The First Positive Thermo-Spiral at A projects beyond the intra-spirals below and forms a regulating barrier to determine just how far this atom shall be inserted into the vortex of the next atom: in other words, this atom becomes sheathed in the next as far as A, while the atom above becomes encased in this precisely the same distance, and so on, which accounts for the great regularity of form in crystallizations, etc. In chemical affinity, as I shall show hereafter, the atom glides into a wide mouthed atom up to its shoulders at A' where the second circuit of these same thermo-spirals is seen. By this means the color-spirals are hidden in the encasing atom, and this explains some mysteries of color change which puzzle the chemist, and which will be explained in Chapter V.
6. The Ligo is supposed to exist only in solids, such as rocks, metals, fibrous substances, etc., in which it forms the leading element of cohesion and hardness, while in liquids, gases and ethers it is wanting, which accounts for their flowing qualities. This tube probably has spiral convolutions with openings in the sides something like those Chimney pieces, the object of which is to cause a draft.
7. The seven thermo-lumino spirals which become the elec-tro-lumino spirals on reaching the vortex and axial portion of the atom, naturally grow somewhat smaller, from the smaller space in which they move, and receive a finer grade of ethers from the axis of the atom above at 9 and 7 than those which course through them in their thermal portions on the outside. As they progress through the axis they become narrower, more nearly straight and consequently more keenly electrical until they reach the torrent end. The reason the dark violet is the coldest of all the colors is, because from its position it must circulate with a more narrow and interior course through the axis, as being the highest (See fig. 135), it reaches the vortex and enters before the others, next to which comes the violet, then the violet-indigo, the indigo, the indigo-blue, the blue, and warmest and least electrical of all in the electrical group, the blue-green. My reasons for calling these the electrical group of colors will be fully shown in XXIX of this chapter. All axial forces move on the law of electricity of some kind, while the coarser grades ofelectri-ity impart the ruder sensations of cold, which are so distressing. The finest grades of electricity, while producing the phenomena of cold, such as contraction, do not impart the chilling sensations of cold at all, to most persons. To compose all the colors which constitute white light, both the electrical and thermal colors must be combined and carried along side by side through conversely polarized lines of atmosphere, or other media, through which they are conveyed.
8. The axial spirillae doubtless fill up the whole interior of their atoms from their elasticity, which fact the artist has not quite expressed.
VIII. The Thermo Spirals.
So useful, as we have seen, in regulating the joining of atoms according to absolute system, have other important qualities. They are important factors of heat or thermism in its ordinary coarser grade, and when moving axially constitute the principle of frictional electricity (See XXV). These being extra-spirals, and consequently the most external of all, it is easy to see why friction or pressure begets heat as well as electricity. It is easy to see, too, why frictional electricity moves especially over the surface of bodies as these spirals are so projecting as to strike very freely against all surrounding atoms, consequently their movements are smothered before they reach any considerable depth below the surface. These extra spirals would naturally emerge from the axis of atoms on a side opposite to that from which the intra-spirals emerge, to maintain an equilibrium of forces, and would also pass into the vortex on the opposite side.
IX.—Ethereal Forces.
1. We have now seen that an atom is a wonderful little machine with wheels within wheels, a miniature world through which are manifested the principles of all power both on the earth beneath and in the heavens above. But how is this machine made to run? How do these atomic springs keep up their ceaseless motions, their amazing vibrations, millions of millions of which take place in a second of time, as for instance in light? Has such a thing ever been heard of as a spring that will vibrate forever of its own accord? Has not science determined that perpetual motion in mechanics is impossible? We have seen in the last chapter that in all the known mechanics of man or nature, force is never propagated excepting through fluidic action of some kind. As the wind-mill must have its wind to keep up motion, so must the atom have its flow of ethers to keep its wheels in operation, and form different sized eddies of force. Democritus speaks of "minute atoms in swift motion which by their smallness and rapidity were able to permeate the hardest bodies." In this idea he almost reached the very key of force, showing that he had an idea of ethereal fluids without which no correct conception of nature's dynamics can ever be acquired.
2. But here it may be asked, what keeps the ethers in perpetual motion, for, like the more static atoms through which they move, even they must be vitalized or they will cease. While the spiral forms of the atom, when once in motion, attract the ethers with a fine suction, and while the arrangement of positive and negative portions of the atoms gives still further vitality, making it almost self-acting, still there is the edict of mathematic-cal science which says that perpetual motion in mechanics is impossible. And yet nature and life are in everlasting motion and not an atom of the universe is at rest. How shall we get out of this dilemma? Let us dwell a moment on this point.
X. The Primate of Force.
We have seen that the finer and more subtile a substance becomes, other things being equal, the more potent is its character (Chap. First, XV.), and the more nearly does it seemingly approach self-action. We see also that the merely material universe has no power in itself of perpetual movement—that protoplasm, for instance, which some physicists proclaim as the starting point of all life, must be entirely powerless without some higher and finer principle beyond it: whence, then, is the power that animates all being? If matter alone proves thus insufficient for this continuity of life, are we not driven irresistibly to the conclusion that what we call spirit, must be a necessary factor? In fact is there an example that can be produced in the whole realm of being, in which continuous and self action exists excepting when some principle of spiritual force is combined with material conditions? To reach the primate of power, then, we seem compelled to mount the ladder of fine forces to those which are still finer, until we arrive at conditions so exquisite as to be able to receive directly the impress of Infinite Spirit. But Spirit itself, if we are to judge by all analogies, must flow out and permeate all atoms and beings on a diviner plan, though in harmony with the fluidic process.
XI. Different Grades of Ether.
1.1 have been convinced beyond all doubt by numerous facts, that there are many different grades and styles of ether, and that long before I saw the suggestion of Grove. I will simply notice two or three of these facts in proof here, as the reader will see the necessity of these grades more and more as we proceed. Scientific men generally admit that there is one ether as a medium for communicating waves of light, etc. This of course is immensely elastic and has sometimes been called the Cosmic Ether which is a very proper name, as it constitutes an exquisite atomic bridge-work between the starry worlds over which pass and repass the fine solar and stellar forces of all kinds, such as the different grades of light, electricity, heat, gravitation, etc. The law of atomic arrangement in this cosmic ether will be shown hereafter. In speaking of these ethers and some other subjects, I must in some cases give simply the results of my investigations, reserving the fuller proofs for another part of this work or for a future treatise.
2. The fact that scientific men in general have not ascertained that there is more than one ether just as there is more than one grade of gases or liquids, shows how completely they have ignored the finer and mightier forces, and confined their investigations to the cruder elements principally. In 1773, La Place demonstrated that gravitation acts at least fifty million times as swiftly as light. Can anybody suppose that such a movement of force comes from waves of the same ether, without some finer element being involved? What would be thought of a person who would assert that waves of air in some cases move 1100 feet in a second, as in the production of sound, and in other cases millions of times as rapidly? But nobody will be so absurd in reasoning about visible and tangible matters, and they should use equal judgment in reasoning about the invisible. The analogies of all nature and the necessity of different grades of fluidic elements to express the different grades of force, constitute abundant proof of the plurality of ethers, as will be seen hereafter.
3. In giving the different grades of ethers, those which are generally in motion gliding through larger atoms will be represented by terms ending in o, but those which are more commonly stationary, or nearly so, like the water of a lake, or a quiet atmosphere, will be signified by terms ending in ic. The former are more fluidic, the latter more nearly static. Static ethers are of course sometimes capable of becoming fluidic, just as water may at times flow in streams, or the air be swept into currents, but I speak of their general character, which is to form a bridge-work of channels through which the fluid ethers may pass, just as polarized lines of atmosphere form channels for the solar ethers in the processes of light. But these very solar ethers, even while in full flight through space, may form the bridge-work of incomparably swifter and more subtile ethers, such, for instance, as those which cause the attraction of gravitation, and thus, for the time being, become relatively static though not absolutely so. My investigations have led me to adopt the following as constituting the leading divisions of ethers, progressing, for the most part, towards superior fineness as we advance.
I give them names mainly from the spirals in connection with which they move.
4. The Thermo Ethers flow through the thermo spirilla* and in connection with these, which as we have seen are the most external of all, constitute the ordinary coarser grades of heat. These ethers are too coarse to become visible in the way of colors, but when the heat action is very intense, as for instance in heated iron, the intra spirals become roused into action and manifest first the red light, then the orange and yellow light, then white light, when the iron is called white hot.
5. Electro Ether is the element of frictional electricity used in connection with these same thermo spirals, only on the axial portion. These spirals being the highest and most external while on the outside of atoms, must necessarily enter the vortex first and become the most interior and direct while in the axial portion, hence the swiftness and intensity of its ethers which are transmitted by the shortest pathway, and hence, also, the fact that they are more thoroughly electrical than the other elements of electricity (See XXV.). On the supposition that there are three grades of thermo and electro spirals, there must be three grades of thermo ether and three of electro ether.
6. Thermo Lumino Ether is used in the intra spirillae which form the thermal colors, or in other words with the thermo lumino spirillae. The different grades may be designated the thermel ether, red ether, orange ether, etc. There seem to be two distinct grades of ether for each color, and a very important principle being involved here, a few words of explanation will be necessary. The reader should remember that the seven tubes which pass around the atom constitute the thermal color-spirals, while the still finer tubes that wind around these spirals themselves, are the first spirillae which form channels for the color ethers. Now suppose a red color ether should be thrown upon a red spirilla from the outside, what would be the effect? The finer atoms of such ether would be small enough to penetrate between the tubes of the spirilla and become a part of the interior current, while the coarser atoms, being too large to pass inside, would strike the tubes and bound off. This would constitute a reflected red as in a red building, while the other would constitute a transmitted red as in red glass. If this is true the interior transmitted color should be more exquisite than the ordinary reflected colors, which in fact is remarkably the case, as the colors of a prism or of colored glass are so much more beautiful than those of the ordinary reflected colors seen in paints or dyes, that a young person viewing them for the first time is apt to make an exclamation of delight. The diamond is a good illustration of exquisitely fine transmitted ethers which are shown by its refractive power. That all substances have different grades of fineness is shown in Chapter Fourth, VII., 1—5. These grades can be called transmitted red, reflected red, transmitted orange, reflected orange, etc.
7. Electro Luinino Ether is of course that which is connected with the spirillae of the electric colors, and may be called the blue-green ether, the blue ether, the indigo-blue ether, and so on with the other four colors. These, too, have the fine transmitted grade of ethers and the coarser reflected grade, the latter of which must bound back from the spirillae just within the vortex. The color ethers (or in other words light), move 186,000 miles a second, or about two-thirds as rapidly as frictional electricity, as measured by Wheatstone. It should be remembered that the color-ethers grow finer as they progress through thermel, red, red-orange, orange, etc., up to dark violet and really far beyond that, although they become invisible to the ordinary eye.
8. So far we have the principal ethers which flow through a transparent substance, like glass, including the thermo ethers which flow through the extra spirals, and the electro ethers which flow through the axial portion of the same; also the lumino ethers, both thermal and electric, which flow through the intra spirals and their axial portions. There must be still finer ethers in connection with the second and third spirillae of these same substances, but these will be understood better hereafter. But are there no other forces in nature excepting those thus far named, including light, reflected and transmitted, ordinary heat as manifested by the thermo spirals and spirillae, and ordinary cold and frictional electricity, as manifested by their axial spirals and spirillae? Yes, for there are different grades of electricity, such as the galvanic and magnetic among the more positive styles, and weaker negative grades of electricity, and other still finer forces which will be explained hereafter.
9. We may now descend to a somewhat coarser grade of ethers which sweep through atoms of somewhat coarser character than those that are used for the transmission of light. Iron, and perhaps a majority of opaque substances, belong more or less to this grade. Farther on in this chapter (XXXIII), facts will be adduced to show that the atoms of these substances also have their seven intra spirals in which the ethers are a little too coarse to appear as light, as well as the usual thermo spirals, through which the ethers flow as a somewhat coarser grade of caloric than that of the other atoms. The intra spirals, when they reach the axis of these atoms, have ethers which correspond to those for blue-green, blue, indigo-blue, indigo, violet-indigo, violet and dark violet of the lumen-ous atoms, only, as I have said, somewhat too coarse to produce the effect of color on the retina of the eye. What effect do they produce, then? That of electricity of course, as they flow axially. But what kinds of electricity? We may divide them into three grades, namely, Chemico electricity, Galvano electricity, and Magneto electricity, or the chemico, galvano and magneto ethers in connection with their axial prince-pies.
10. Chemico Ether is a lower grade of chemical force, presumed to flow through the axial spirilla corresponding to the blue-green in the color atoms and perhaps the coarser grade of blue, and constituting the feeblest style of electricity as it is more external than the other axial spirillae. It is doubtless an element of negative electricity, and is quickened into decided action by sulphuric acid coming into contact with zinc, etc. See XXVI.
11. Galvano Ether, the element of galvanic electricity, seems to correspond with the ether for blue, indigo-blue, and probably indigo. It is finer and more powerful than the chemico grade. See XXVII and XXXIV.
12. Magneto Ether, used in Magnetic electricity and Magnetism. Its spirillae correspond to those for violet-indigo, violet and dark violet, as shown by spectrum analysis. This, in connection with some galvano ether, constitutes the positive or north-pole currents of the magnet, while chemico ether is used in the feebler currents of the south pole in connection with thermism.
See Chromo-dynamics; also Plate III., in which the odic colors are a fair test of the potencies of the magnet. Iron, the great leading metal of magnetism, when intensely heated for spectroscopic analysis, has the violet-indigo the strongest of its electrical colors, also the violet, indigo, blue, and blue-green large, which last is the element of Chemical electricity. (Chap. Fifth, XIII).
13. Odylo-Ether, the basic fluid of odic light and force as discovered by Baron Reichenbach, and a grade higher than the ethers of ordinary light. It flows through the 2d spirillae of the intra spirals just as ordinary light does through the first spirillae of the same: also through the first spirillae of odic atmosphere just as light does through the same spirillae of common atmosphere. (See Chap. Ninth.)
14. Psycho Ether, used in connection with mental action (Chap. Tenth), twice as fine as Odylo ether, four times as fine as light, as will be shown. It can pass through the 3d spirillae of intra spirals of ordinary atmosphere, also through the 1st spirillae of the psychic atmosphere, which form all analogies we must suppose to exist.
15. Gravito Ether, the central element of gravitation, inconceivably fine and swift. The reader may already see from the foregoing description of atoms, something of how its attractive processes are carried on between all bodies, all atoms of which exert their suctional forces in all directions so far as this fine ether is concerned. At some future time I shall attempt to explain the processes by which this is done, and by which some atoms become heavy and others light.
16. Cosmic Ether. I will mention briefly some static ethers which are signified by names ending in ic, as I have before said. Cosmic ether, from Cosmos, the world, is the great world-connecting ether of space, whose atoms, polarized by the light of suns and stars, become crystal railways over which light and various other forces pass. In Chapter Fourth, VIII, I have given a number of facts in proof that this cosmic ether is simply a continuation of the finer elements of the atmosphere of the earth and other orbs in the shape of an exquisite grade of hydrogen as its leading element.
17. Odylic Ether is the finer atmosphere within the coarser, through which the odylo ether or odic force finds its most natural pathway. For description see Chapter Ninth, III, 2.
18. Psychic Ether, the atmosphere still finer than the foregoing, through which psycho ether with the psychic lights and colors makes its pathway. It is the same to psycho ether that the atmosphere is to light. (See Chap. Tenth).
19. Miscellaneous Ethers. There are ethers probably still coarser, and of course still finer than any of the foregoing. There is probably a very slow Animo ether which constitutes a vitalizing principle of animal life and the coarser grade of nerve-force. According to experiments made by Helmholtz and Baxt, the mean rapidity of the motor nerve force is 254 feet per second. As we have already seen, the lines of all spirals and spirillae must be tubes if we are to judge by analogies. When I say the line of a spiral, I do not mean the line that passes around the spiral, for this would be the 1st spirilla, but the spiral itself. Within the spiral tube would naturally be polarized lines of minute atoms forming a static ether which may be called Spiric, while in the spirillae tubes the same kind of still smaller atoms may be called Spirillic. These must serve a great purpose, for as they wind around in tortuous lines and are swept by the ethereal forces into countless vibrations, these internal ethers must be chafed with intense frictions which would immediately render the whole tubes alive with heat and quicken the action of the whole atom with all its grades of ether. These spiric and spirillic ethers would also be quickened and held together by exquisitely fine fluid ethers which move in endless circuits through them, and which should properly be called Spiro-Ether and Spirillo Ether. The Ligo Ether, which sweeps through the ligo and drives the atoms together into a close cohesion, must be a cold and swift current on the general plan of electricity. In order to the greatest harmony, the ethers that pass through the channel (not the tube), of the third spirillae, must be twice as fine as those of a 2d spirilla, and those of a 2d, twice as fine as those of a 1st, and the size of these channels themselves, as well as the size of the tubes that form the channels, must vary accordingly. This makes every alternate wave of force harmonize, just as is done in tones which are an octave apart. This same kind of harmony is carried out in male and female voices which average
8
just an octave apart. The reader will understand this the better by studying the laws of undulatory harmony and discord, and by remembering that nature ever works according to the most perfect system. Let not the reader consider the foregoing nomenclature and division of ethers quite imaginary, as he will be finding facts in corroboration all through this work, and still other facts in a future work of the author.
XII. Ethers have Weight,
Otherwise they could not have momentum. It is common to call electricity, magnetism, light, heat, etc., imponderable, because human instruments are not delicate enough to weigh them. Prof. Crookes, however, has succeeded in measuring the momentum of light by means of his wonderful little instrument called the radiometer. By its means he has estimated the propulsive power of sunlight for the whole earth at 3000 millions of tons! His instrument has given the dynamic theorists much trouble. The light of a candle he has found to weigh .001728 or nearly a 900th part of a grain. The amazing forces used in chemical affinity, such as chemico-ether, the luminous ethers, electro-ether, etc., as will be shown hereafter, sweep the atoms even of solids into every style of arrangement and polarization, and consequently must have a tremendous momentum. The etherio-atomic law demonstrates this point in a multitude of ways. Dr. William B. Carpenter, who seems to be but little acquainted with the fine forces, has written an article in the "Nineteenth Century," in which he takes the most difficult methods of explaining away the power of radiation to produce electricity and mechanical force as in the radiometer. "There is no reason whatever," he says, "for attributing to radiation any other power of exciting an electric current than that which it exerts mediately through its power of heating the thermopile." Even if this assertion should prove true, how can sunlight heat the thermopile, or anything else, except by the impact and momentum of its rays upon it, especially as it is admitted that radiating light has no perceptible heat of itself, excepting as it strikes something?
XIII.—Polar Cohesion of Atoms.
I think the ground is now sufficiently clear for an understanding of the methods by which atoms become polarized and combine into solids and other substances.
| 137. Polarized Atoms. |
Fig. 137 represents two atoms polarized and joined at 1, the upper atom sinking into the lower as far as the positive thermo spirals, which thus regulate the distance. The dotted lines represent the ethers which flow axially from 3 to 5, and thermally around the atoms in the other direction; 4, 4 shows how the ethers are drawn on from one atom to another by the eddy-like forces of the spirals and spirillae of the same grade with which they come in contact. The ligo of the upper atom glides into the ligo of the lower, and the two thus become riveted into one, and held doubly tight by the spiral sweep of the ligo-ether. The artist has doubtless represented the upper ligo as being inserted too far in the lower ligo, as the axial spirals which encircle the upper might interfere somewhat, unless they are exceedingly elastic. But how do the atoms thus arrange themselves in this orderly manner? Why do not the wrong ends come together? Not only does the vortical and ligo suction of the lower atom draw the second, but the torrent or axial current above drives the second against the lower atom and holds them together. They could not possibly be joined wrong end first, as the currents would then drive in opposite directions, and repulsion would occur. They can no more avoid this arrangement under the play of ethereal forces than a stick of wood on the brink of a maelstrom can avoid being swept in. The positive end of the line is at 5, the negative end at 3.
XIV. Lateral Cohesion.
1. Having explained the mystery of polar cohesion, let us see how atoms can cohere laterally. Fig. 138 presents two lines of
polarized atoms drawn with a single thermo spiral and its first spirilla. The lines are placed conversely so that a positive spirilla of one atom occurs by the side of a negative spirilla of another. If they were placed so that the eddies of two
positive spirillae should come together, they would repel each other; but a powerful eddy placed near a feeble one would overcome it and draw it toward itself. Thus the positive spirilla 1, outdraws the negative spirilla 3 at the point 2, and so links that portion of the upper atom to the lower, while the positive spirilla 5 outdraws the negative spirilla 4, and thus holds that portion of the lower atom as firmly as the lower atom held the upper in the other case. The other atoms work in the same way.
2. Thus we see that heat action, which is generally so expansive and disintegrating, may become an element of cohesion, though a much feebler one than cold exerted through the ligo, and axes of atoms in polar cohesion. This will explain why wood, stratified rock, etc., will split more easily in one direction than another. The polar cohesion is in the direction of the fibres, grains of wood, etc., while the lateral cohesion is at right angles to this. The curved line, showing how ethers may pass out of the torrent end of one line of atoms and be drawn into the vortex end of another line, will give a hint of how magnetic curves are formed, although it is incorrect to represent it as passing out and into contiguous lines or out and into the same layer of atoms.
3. The cut will show how atoms can communicate their impulses laterally, as from 1 to 3, as well as longitudinally from 7 to 8. The lateral movement of light may be understood by studying it, as it can never be understood otherwise.
XV. The Unity of Atoms.
Judging by all other works of nature, atoms must be united by bonds of unity through all their parts, so that all spirals must be connected more or less with all other spirals by small pillars or tubes. These may be called atomic tendrils. The 3rd spirilla imparts action to the 2d, the 2d to the 1st, and the 1st to the parent spiral itself, while each spiral is so connected with its brother spirals as to act and react upon them. Even the thermo spirals are doubtless connected with the intra-spirals, as well as with each other, by delicate tubes which are so arranged as not to impede the passage of ethers. In this way atoms are doubly armed against stagnation and death, for if only a single ether should be moving through the minutest spirilla, it would impart more or less of its vitalizing power to the whole atom.
XVI. —Converse Layers of Atoms
Are such as are represented in the cut, fig. 138, with the lines running in parallel but alternately in opposite directions. The next layer placed upon this would exactly reverse the order, and be the same as this turned over, so that the upper atoms would come on the lower and the lower on the upper. This must be the arrangement of the cosmic ether by means of which it is enabled to carry both cold and warm forces to and from the sun and other orbs. It is probably also the most common arrangement of ordinary matter.
XVII. —Transverse Layers of Atoms
Are those which cross each other at right angles, or nearly so, and must bind the particles into a greater hardness or toughness than they would otherwise have, as they are polarized longitude-nally and laterally. Steel must be composed of transverse layers just as iron is doubtless composed of converse ones mainly. I will mention here simply two proofs of this, 1st, steel or car-buretted iron is harder than ordinary iron; 2d, magnets must necessarily have transverse layers of atoms as can be demonstrated by this atomic law, as well as otherwise. Steel when once magnetized remains a permanent magnet because of its transverse polarizations, while the layers of iron arc held transversely only when under the electric or magnetic current, consequently its magnetism ceases when the current is withdrawn. See XXX of this chapter.
XVIII. —Laws of Atomic Combination.
1. Atoms must combine to a considerable extent according to the general law of their spirals. Two distinctive styles of atoms seem to be clearly demonstrable in different substances, in one of which the spirals move around almost perpendicular to
| Fig. 140. Transverse Diagonals,Fig. I3<).Transverse Lines. |
the direction of the atom, as in fig. 139, while in the other, their movement is more diagonal as in fig. 140. The former would tend to make the atoms broader and capable of more specific heat, while the latter would extend them into a longer and narrower form, with the external spirals more drawn
out, somewhat as they are in the axial or electrical portion of the atom. The one would doubtless find its type in steel, the other in bismuth or antimony, the specific heat of which is exceedingly small.
2. Figures 139, and 140 will show just why certain substances will have tranverse polarizations, in which the layers of atoms cross each other very nearly at right angles, while others will have transverse diagonals, for the following reasons:—The spirals in 139 running in the direction of 1, 2, form little whirlwinds of force in that direction which, striking a contiguous line of atoms, must tend to wheel it around accordingly and hold it there, especially under excitement, as in 5, 6, while in fig. 140, the lines of force being diagonal, must sweep the atoms around until they become diagonally transverse, as in 5, 6. In most cases, however, it is probable that the line 6, 5, should be reversed with the vortex end at 6 instead of 5, in which case we could easily see how such a phenomenon as double refraction might occur as in Iceland spar, a part of the light striking at 3 and moving on to 4, and another part striking at 6 and moving on to 5.
3. It is evident that when any substance is aroused to extraaction by friction or by passing an electrical current through it, a part of the lines will be thrown into a transverse arrangement, or at least into transverse diagonals, according to whether the spirals pass around the atoms, as in fig. 139, or obliquely, as in fig. 140. What proof have we that this is so? We know that if we rub any object briskly, and hold it near a hair or some other light object, it will attract it. The fact of this attraction shows that there are eddies of etherial force which sweep around in and out of the object frictionized, and draw other objects towards itself. But what has this to do with showing that excited objects have their atomic lines arranged transversely? my reader may say. Just this; if the lines should all run in the same direction, there would be no counter-currents to deflect them so that the neighboring vortexes could draw them in and thus establish a circuit of forces which, like a miniature whirlwind, is attractive to everything around. Thus a piece of iron in its ordinary condition will attract nothing, but pass a current of electricity through it and it immediately becomes magnetic and highly attractive, and this attraction is caused by circuits of force as shown by iron filings which may be placed above it on a piece of paper. (See. fig. 23.) Glass must have its atomic lines polarized in various directions, or it would not be transparent in all these directions, for which reason it is highly attractive when excited, and for which reason, also, glass and other irregularly polarized objects are called non-conductors of electricity as the transverse lines obstruct the electrical ethers. Transverse diagonals, if not arranged somewhat amorphously, must be less obstructive and consequently better conductors of both heat and electricity than transverse lines in which the more perpendicular spirals rule, as in fig. 139. Silver, copper, etc., which are such fine conductors, may be presumed to be more diagonally arranged than steel, which is a poor conductor, comparatively. Good conduction also requires continuous lines of polarity, and all amorphous bodies must necessarily be poor conductors, as well as all bodies which have polarizations in too many directions, like gutta percha, leather, etc. That these last bodies must be polarized in various directions is evident from their toughness in all directions, the greatest cohesion, as we have seen, being in the line of polarity.
XIX. Paraverse Layers of Atoms.
Are those in which the lines are all turned in the same direction, (See fig. 141), the positive spirillae of one line being arranged
against the negative spirillae of the contiguous line. This should give seemingly a lateral cohesion about the same as that in converse lines, though somewhat less perhaps from the less perfect union of graded spirillae. It throws the second range of atoms a little farther along than the first, the third one still farther on, etc., resulting in diagonally formed and rhomboidal crystallizations, as in bismuth, antimony, quartz, ice, etc. It is probable that this paraverse arrangement of atoms comes from diagonal spirals. It will be seen in the cut how the large, active sub-coils of one atom come opposite to the feebler ones of another so as to promote attrac-
tion. Thus the positive spirilla 7 binds the negative spirilla 6 and 8 to it, 2 draws 1, 5 draws 4, etc.
XX. Crystalloid and Amorphous Bodies.
Crystalloid and other regulary formed or morphous bodies are such as grow into some definite forms on account of a general and regular polarization of their atoms. They are capable of strong chemical effects, and examples of them may be seen in crystallizations, stratified rocks, grained woods, etc. Amorphous Bodies, or literally those without form, are deficient in continuous polarities and orderly arrangement of molecules. Clumps of earth, many ores in a crude state, pulverized substances, snow, etc., are amorphous. When the ores are worked up into bars of metal, they generally become more or less crystalloid. No forms whatever are entirely destitute of polar arrangement, but amorphous bodies have but short or irregular lines of force, and consequently are negative and lacking in chemical effect.
XXI. Heat and Cold.
1. Heat expands, individualizes, works on the centrifugal law, and in excess tends to disorganize and tear into pieces; Cold contracts, polarizes, organizes, crystallizes, works on the centripetal law, and in excess tends to lifelessness and congelation.
2. The Law of Motion for heat is the spiral with its eddies of force passing around the outside of atoms; that for cold is the same combination of eddies narrowed down to a vortex which passes in the opposite direction through the axes of atoms, and becomes swifter, narrower, and straighter as it proceeds.
3. The greatest Heat Lines are in the greatest curves—the greatest Cold Forces approximate more and more the straight line.
4. Heat produces its sting by laying on countless millions of lashes every second, and cold, by piercing with countless gimlets on the boring process.
5. There are various grades of heat and cold, the coarser grades consisting of the coarser ethers passing through the coarser spi-rillae. These in excess are more painful and hurtful to the human system, while the finer grades, being connected with the finer spirals, are more penetrating and soft in their influence. (See Chap. First, XV.) We may be pierced by a razor, and it will hurt us far less than will so coarse an instrument as a hoe; a current of electricity may penetrate entirely through a portion of our bodies, and make but a gentle shock from its fineness, while currents of human magnetism, being still more exquisite, may at times permeate the whole system without our consciousness. This will explain the effect of different grades of fineness of heat and cold, and will also show why sun-light is less hurtful to the eyes than the coarser gas-light, which has more of the yellow and red principle, and why the color-electricities of blue and violet, for instance, are so much softer than the electricity of the battery.
6. It may be well to remark that all the finer grades of cold are simply grades of electricity, as will be seen hereafter.
7.1 will merely hint here at the fact that the heat and cold principles in atoms form a chemical affinity for each other, which explains why it is that the greatest heat is developed by combining cold and electrical elements with those which are warm, as the blue with red light, or the electrical principle of oxygen with the thermal principle of potassium, by the union of which a flame is kindled. (See Chromo Chemistry.)
XXII. Atomic Divisions.
1. Before we can understand the philosophy of force we must thoroughly understand the construction of atoms. If any one should remark that no human eye has ever seen an atom, and consequently it cannot be described, I would remark, 1st, that human reason, aided by scientific discovery, can penetrate far beyond telescopes and microscopes; 2dly, I conclude that this atomic theory is fundamentally correct, because it explains multitudes of mysteries not before understood, and harmonizes with or corrects all scientific facts or hypotheses to which I have applied it. If I should apply a key to a hundred doors in some temple, and it should unlock them all, I should say it was the correct key; 3dly, by understanding law we may at times discover a fact or truth by means of reason sooner than we would by outward perceptions without a knowledge of law, just as LeVerrier discovered where the planet Neptune must be from his knowledge of mathematics, before it was discovered by the telescope. I admit that we must test theories by facts and facts by theories, a rule which may be observed with reference even to atoms, and which I have ever aimed to observe.
2. I must again ask the reader to take some of my statements at present on trust or from their apparent reasonableness, promising hereafter in this work, and still further, in a succeeding one, to give facts and reasons. If so much discussion of the subject of atoms is considered dry reading, it should be remembered that we shall be but charlatans in science until we can reach basic principles.
3. We have, then, the atom with its wonderful diversity of powers, including thermal spirals and spirillae, axial spirals and spirillae, and the ligo tube, with all the internal and external ethers. I have called the form of the atom an ovoid, but this ovoid is evidently more or less oblate or flattened, 1st, because it would combine more systematically to form layers of matter, and 2dly, because it would readily assume such a form, as the axial spirals, emerging near the small positive end with great velocity of vibratory force, would naturally be swept too far one side to make a complete circular spiral, and so it would assume more of an oval spiral, exactly in harmony with the motion of planets around the sun.
4. As to the extra or thermo spirals, the following are among the arguments in proof that the foregoing conception is founded on nature; 1st, it is an important dual division of forces in harmony with analogies in general; 2dly, atoms can be inserted into each other by an exact system in the ordinary polar cohesion and by another exact system in chemical combinations in case certain thermo spirals project beyond the rest, and thus form regular barriers; 3dly, frictional electricity, especially, is confined to the surface of bodies, and is aroused by external friction or pressure which goes to show that some part of their spirals is external; 4thly,the fact that frictional electricity is swifter than other grades could be accounted for by supposing its spirals to be the most interior in the axis of atoms where the pathway is shortest and nearest straight. But if its axial spirals are most interior, their thermal portions would naturally be the most exterior; 5thly Magneto-electricity and magnetism can penetrate considerably below the surface of bodies, which could not be if any part of the spirals concerned were external, as their action would then be smothered before they had penetrated far within. This shows the necessity of intra-spirals. 6thly, the fact that the electrical colors can penetrate deeply within substances, as in the case of seeds which are reached and germinated by them to a considerable depth below the surface of the soil, shows that no part of their spirals is external, consequently colors must require intraspirals.
5. That there are seven intra spirals in ordinary transparent bodies, six of which constitute the principle of the thermal colors when moving thermally, and that all seven of the same spirals, when moving axially, constitute the principle of the electrical colors, will be more and more evident hereafter. That there are seven intra-spirals of somewhat coarser grade in iron, copper and other opaque bodies, devoted to the manifestation of different grades of heat and electricity, will be shown in this chapter, XXXIII., 2.
XXIII. Cohesion.
1. We have already seen how the Ligo rivets the atoms together until they become masses of solid substance, such as metals, rocks, woods, bones, muscles, etc. The suction caused by the ligo ether, together with the firmness of its parts, must cause the principal cohesion, although the other ethers assist to some extent.
2. In such a metal as mercury and in the liquids and gases, the ligo is probably wholly wanting, excepting as some foreign substance may exist in their midst.
3. In case of intense cold the vortical and electrical forces become so swift as to sweep the atoms together into a congealed or solid mass without the aid of the ligo, except as foreign particles may intervene. It should be remembered that the tendency of cold is not only to diminish the size of all atoms, but to thicken or harden all masses of atoms. The fact that water, and melted iron, bismuth, zinc and antimony, become somewhat increased in bulk on becoming hardened by cold, does not invalidate the rule, but shows how the process of crystallization can pile some polarized lines upon others in a way to enlarge their size as a mass.
4. When the heat becomes very great the spirals of atoms expand to such an extent and become so furious in their centrifugal action as to throw even the particles of iron and other metals asunder in a melted condition, in spite of the ligo, and when much greater still, the atoms become so detached as to be wafted off into the air on the swift currents of ether, in the form of vapor. The tendency of heat is to soften and disintegrate. If bodies like moist clay become hardened by heat, it is because it evaporates the water and leaves only the atoms which possess the ligo. The small amount of cohesion that exists between the atoms of liquids, gases, and ethers, comes doubtless from the flow of electrical forces through their axes.
XXIV. Different Kinds of Electricity.
My researches in connection with my studies of atomic law have convinced me of the existence of six or more distinct grades of electricity, besides some minor divisions, namely, Frictional Electricity, Chemico Electricity, Galvano Electricity, Magneto Electricity, Chroma Electricity, and Psycho Electricity. The swiftest of these, so far as known, is the Frictional, although Chromo-Electricity is much softer and more penetrating. A brief account of these will be in place here. Psycho-Electricity will be explained under the chapter on Chromo-Mentalism.
XXV. Frictional Electricity
Is sometimes improperly called Static (standing or stationary), as there is no such thing as any electricity which is not in rapid motion. According to Wheatstone this style of electricity moves at the rate of 288,000 miles a second. For the reason of its swiftness and intense action see XI. 5, of this chapter. Its element is electro-ether while its principle consists of the axial portion of the thermo-spirals, for the character of which see fig. 135. Being extra spirals in their thermal portion, it will readily be seen why all friction, rubbing, and pressure, will arouse them into action, produce heat as well as electricity. It may be asked why is not frictional electricity, as developed by the electric machine, used for healing purposes? Because it moves almost entirely on the surface of the skin where the nerves of sensation are most active, consequently its effect is exciting rather than soothing or healing. Frictional electricity, as aroused by the hand moving over the surface, is generally very vitalizing and soothing as it is softened down by the finer vital electricities. Magneto and chromo electricity are finer than the frictional, penetrate more deeply from being connected with intra spirals, and are better for therapeutical purposes. What is called thermo-electricity is often mere frictional electricity, aroused by direct heat in connection with the thermo spirals.
XXVI. Chemico Electricity
Seems to be caused by a somewhat coarse ether moving in connection with the axial portion of the coarsest of the intraspirals (see fig. 22), corresponding probably to the spiral for blue green only coarser, ft is doubtless the electricity which is generally called negative in its nature, except in galvanism, although the substances which constitute its most natural abiding place from having the right sized spirals, are improperly called electro positive, such as potassium, sodium, the metals, etc., while other substances in which frictional, galvano and magneto electricity most naturally dwell are called electro-negatives, such as oxygen, sulphur, etc., although these kinds of electricity are strong positive grades as compared with chemico-electricity. To avoid confusion, however, I shall sometimes adopt the terms as scientists have generally established them, begging the reader to remember that what are called electro-positives are substances which are really the most feebly electrical, while those which are called electro-negatives are those which are really the most electropositive, or, in other words, which are the most strongly electrical. The scientists have fallen into this error from supposing that electricity is a mere dynamical force dwelling entirely within the atoms of a substance, and as dissimilar electricities attract each other, a substance was supposed to be negative in case a positive electricity was evolved from it and vice versa. Under the caption of Galvanism it will be shown how chemico electricity is evolved in connection with the zinc of the battery and moves through the sulphuric or nitric acid to the plate of copper or platinum, while a finer grade of electricity, the galvanic, passes from these latter metals to the zinc. Three things are especially evident with respect to chemico-electricity,—1st, its movement is always attended with more or less heat as well as cold; 2dly, other things being equal, it is the feeblest of all grades of electricity and the least electrical in its nature, for which reason it is sometimes called negative by electricians; 3dly, in galvanism it moves through alternate lines of converse atoms in exactly the opposite direction from galvanic and magnetic electricity. Its movement is attended with heat and a feeble grade of electricity, because, being the last spiral to enter the axis of the atom (see fig. 135), it must necessarily encircle all the rest and have less of that swift narrow and pointed style which constitutes cold and electricity. The causes of its moving in opposite directions will be given under the head of Galvanism, XXXIV.
XXVII. —Galvano-Electricity
Is a grade finer than the chemico, and answers to the axial spirals which correspond to the electro-lumino spirals for the blue, including also indigo-blue and probably indigo, though coarser than these. It is the finer positive electricity which moves in the galvanic circuit from the copper to the zinc, etc., and doubtless exists in many so-called electro-negative substances. How do we know that galvano-electricity is not as fine a grade as that of the blue color? Because if it were it would give out a blue appearance, and moreover its effects are less soft and penetrating than those of blue sunlight. See Galvanism, XXXIV.
XXVIII. —Magneto-Electricity.
A Grade finer than the galvano, and made in connection with spirals that correspond with the electro-lumino-spirals for the violet, including violet-indigo, violet and dark violet. The finest induced currents of the battery, sometimes called Faradaic, from Faraday, consist of magneto electricity. The positive pole of the magnet gets its power from magneto electricity bent into curves, while the negative or south pole is presumably charged with the chemico-grade. See Magnetism (XXX.) Although the magneto grade is coarser than the color electricities, yet, under the force of the magnet, it is readily driven through glass whose spirals form a natural pathway of light and color. This may be proved by placing iron filings on a pane of glass and holding a magnet below it, in which case the filings will be thrown upward and also into a great number of lateral curves on both sides.
XXIX.—Chromo-Electricity.
We come at last to a grade of electricity whose ethers and spirals are fine enough to appeal to the eye in the form of the electrical colors, such as blue, violet, etc., already mentioned. Although the scientific world has not yet learned that these colors constitute one grade of electricity, yet they have discovered many facts that bear in that direction. I will mention some points in proof:—
1. Electricity, as I have already shown, consists of the cold contracting principle. The violet end of the color scale is known to consist of cold colors, just as the red end is warm, as shown by the thermometer and thermo pile.
2. Morichini, Carpa, Ridolfi, and Mrs. Somerville state that, by exposing common steel needles to the violet rays of a spectrum, or by covering one-half of them with blue glass, they become magnetic. Атрёге has shown that magnetism is identical with electricity, and it will be shown hereafter in this work that magnetism consists of electricity thrown into curves by passing in transverse lines. The persons who deny the electrical character of the violet and blue rays present insufficient facts, although the grade of electricity is finer than that which usually influences the galvanometer, or perhaps even the magnet.
3. Zantedeschi exposed a magnet, which would carry 15 ounces, to the sun 3 days, and increased its power two and a half times. Barlocci found that a magnet which would lift one pound, would lift nearly two pounds after exposing to strong sunlight 24 hours. No one will pretend that the red or other thermal colors could have done this, while the facts of the last paragraph show that the violet end of the scale is quite competent to it. The reader may wonder how sunlight can arouse magnetism if, as I have shown, the magnetic ethers are somewhat coarser than chromo-electricity. I shall show hereafter under the head of Fluorescence (XXXIII), and elsewhere, that under stimulus, coarse ethers can sometimes be forced through spirals which are naturally too fine for them, and fine ethers through spirals which are naturally too coarse for them. Although chromo-electricity may stimulate, and to some extent pass through the atomic spirals of a magnet, this stimulus evidently tends to draw in from the atmosphere magneto-electricity, especially in cold weather, from the fact that if the former electricity were sufficiently abundant, the magnet itself would be bathed in blue and violet colors.
4. Electricity being the principal cause of phosphorescence, and these colors having the same power, tends to prove their similarity of character. "Beccaria examined the solar phosphori," says Prof. Hunt, "and ascertained that the violet ray was the most energetic, and the red ray the least so, in exciting phosphorescence in certain bodies. M. Biot and the elder Becquerel have proved that the slightest electrical disturbance is sufficient to produce these phosphorescent effects. May we not then regard the action of the most refrangible rays, namely, the violet, as analagous to that of electrical disturbance? May not electricity itself be but a development of this mysterious solar emanation?" To this question, aided by our knowledge of atoms, we may answer no, so far as ordinary electricity is concerned, as ordinary electricity and magnetism are aroused only indirectly by the solar rays.
5. Electricity is the principle of cold, but, by means of chemical action with thermal substances, can develop the greatest heat known; in the same way blue, indigo and violet constitute the cold end of the spectrum, and yet by means of chemical combination with thermal colors can develop greater heat than could be done with the red color alone. I will cite one example merely. General Pleasanton, of Philadelphia, by putting blue glass in among the panes of clear glass so as to bring blue and white light together, caused the thermometer in his grapery to rise to 110°, while on the outside the temperature was only 35° F., or a little above the freezing point. The General supposed that this effect occurred partly by gaining some electrical force from transmission through the glass, but we shall see under Chromo-Chemistry that the blue rays develop this great heat by combining chemically with the thermal rays of the sunlight. Like other styles of electricity the blue and violet colors can develop no heat, excepting in chemical affinity with warm substances, or when bent into magnetic curves.
6. The odylic colors, explained in the chapter on Chromo Dynamics, and developing the finer potencies of things, prove the electrical nature of blue, violet, etc.
7. It will be fully shown hereafter in this work, that there can be no possible style of chemical affinity without combining some style of electricity with the principle of thermism in atoms. If it should be proved that all shades and hues of blue, indigo and violet fill the office of electricity in chemical combinations, would it not be absurd to say they are not electrical? How fully this can be proved will be seen hereafter.
8. Thus do we have the most overwhelming proofs from the construction of atoms, and from actual experiment, of the electrical nature of these colors, including blue-green, blue, indigo-blue, indigo, violet-indigo, violet and dark violet.
XXX.—Magnetism.
1. Having attained to some conception of electricity as a principle and as an element, and the law of its movement through atoms, it would be well to inquire how it is modified to constitute magnetism. We have already seen that the reason why steel constitutes a permanent magnet when once charged with the proper electricities is, that its atoms must be arranged in transverse layers. This is shown by a bar magnet placed under a piece of card-board or glass upon which iron filings are lying, as in fig. 143. These filings will be drawn into concentric curves each side of the magnet, currents of ether sweeping in connected circuits around, through and on both sides of the magnet, sometimes making the filings project a half an inch above the glass, while through the centre in the direction of N. and S. they he in straight lines, ft is easy to see how transverse lines of force, caused by transverse atoms passing at right angles, could deflect each other from a straight fine, and being once deflected they could be drawn into a neighboring vortex of a line of atoms in the magnet where, after passing through, they would be deflected again and perhaps return into the same old channels of the magnet to continue their endless circuits.
2. The straight lines through the centre show that some lines of force are constantly gliding through the magnet lengthwise, having its influx at one end, its efflux at the other. Experiments, especially with the odic lights and colors, seem to prove that these lines of force, sweeping in one direction, consist of magnetoelectricity which passes in at the south or negative pole and
9
passes out at the north or positive pole, while sweeping through the centre in the other direction is the weaker chemico-electricity, entering at the positive pole and emerging at the negative. This will at once show why the magnetic needle points north and south, or at least in the magnetic meridian, as the strong electric and magnetic currents which ever pass northward above the equator and southward below the equator, hold it in the direction in which they move, turning the positive end northward in north latitude, and southward in south latitude. And yet these currents of force that have sufficient momentum to turn the needle in their own direction, just as a vane is turned by the wind, or to throw their curves around heavy weights and bind them to the magnet, are named by our scientists imponderable! An electro horse-shoe magnet has been made to lift 10,000 pounds by means of these hooks and lines of so called imponderable forces, which are really ethers. The curves at the feebler end of the magnet have a predominance of the chemico-electricity, those at the positive end, of magneto-electricity.
3. The reader can now solve the great mystery of why similar electricities repel, dissimilar ones attract. When two positive poles are placed together the currents of magneto-electricity dash against each other and find no vortexes of the right size in the opposite pole to draw them on. When the negative poles are joined the chemico-electricity wars upon chemico-electricity in the same way. When positive and negative poles are joined, the magneto-electricity of the positive end rushes outward and is drawn into its own grade of spirals in the negative end, while the chemico-electricity of the negative end passes outward into its own affinitive spirals of the positive end.
4. Fig. 138 shows by the dotted line 6 how a line of magnetism may pass out of the torrent end of one line of atoms and into the vortex end of another line. It is not probable, however, that it would ever pass out and into contiguous lines as represented in the cut, nor in any two lines in the same layer of atoms, as the atomic torrents would be apt to deflect the currents above or below, especially above and northward, as may be supposed from the earth's currents and in a somewhat diagonal direction. That the magnetic currents have this direction may be seen by studying their action on iron filings.
5. Why does not iron, like steel, become permanently magnetic when once charged? Because it needs an electric or magnetic influence to polarize its lines transversely. Above all other substances iron seems to have the right sized spirals for magneto-electricity, although, as Faraday has shown, nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, cerium, titanium, palladium, crown glass, platinum, osmium, and oxygen are more or less magnetic, commencing with the strongest.
6. Why the atmosphere is but slightly magnetic may be accounted for by the fact that the radiations of fine ethers from the sun in the daytime, or from the earth at night, are but slightly transverse, consequently it is diamagnetic.
7. When glass, sealing wax and other substances are rubbed they become electrical, and the fact that they will attract hairs, feathers, &c., shows that, for the time being, they are in a condition something like magnetism or at least diamagnetism. Ferromagnetism is by no means the finest or only quality of magnetism, that of light being more exquisite, while the finer grade of human magnetism is so refined as to defy the measurement of the most delicate instruments. Multitudes of examples could be given of persons who possess that psycho-magnetism which enables them to attract and control sensitive persons at a great distance. Sensitives should understand this fact and use their will-power to prevent undue control.
8. "What is the thing that causes magnetic attraction?" says Tyndall. "The human mind has striven long to realize it. * * * The real origin of magnetism is yet to be revealed." The matter seems to be very simple when aided by a knowledge of fluidic and atomic forces. We know how a whirlwind draws in all surrounding objects and holds them fast in its own embrace, and we have seen just how a magnet has millions of minute whirlwinds which sweep into and out of the atomic lines of a magnet and draw a kindred substance like iron to itself. It cannot draw lead or most metals to itself, because their spirillae are not of the right size to receive magnetic currents.
9. Why is the middle of a magnet devoid of attractive force? The magneto-electricity seems to charge all the spirals and circuits of the positive end towards which it flows as far as it can without escaping into the air, and the same is the case with the chemico-electricity at the negative end towards which it flows. The air being partially non-conducting, hedges in the electricity until it fills some considerable distance from each end, but not enough to reach to the middle.
10. Great Heat destroys magnetism by rendering the currents too powerful to be deflected into curves. A magnet must draw in and emit constant streams of electricity from and to the atmosphere. A wire through which a galvanic current is passing becomes for the time being a magnet able to attract iron filings, and causing, by its transverse curves, a magnetic needle to stand at right angles to itself.
11. If we put a magnet under a pane of glass upon which iron filings have been placed, we can at once see that the currents of magneto-electricity throw the filings upward, forward and laterally, thus showing that many of the lines of atoms are polarized in at least three directions. Fig. 143 will show some of the curves and straight lines of force flowing laterally and longitude-nally in connexion with a bar magnet, and the lower portion of Plate III will show some of the lines of force which are manifested when the sides of the poles of a horse-shoe magnet are placed under the same pane of glass, while the colored flames from each pole, which can be seen by some persons, will show that the north pole has greater power than the south and is manifested by a different array of colors, the significance of which will be explained in the chapter on Chromo Dynamics. The superior attractive power of the north pole is well known and can be tested at any time.
12. I have given thus much attention to magnetism, not only from its great importance and the impossibility of understanding the various potencies of light without it, but because its laws are not understood, and like a hundred other mysteries never can be understood without a knowledge of atoms. The cause of the two directions and two grades of electricity will be shown under the head of Galvanism, in XXXIV of this chapter.
XXXI. Diamagnetism.
1. If an iron nail or other magnetic substance should be suspended from the middle between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet it will immediately arrange itself in the magnetic axis and
point to the north and south pole thus, N—S, but if a piece of bismuth, or phosphorus, or antimony, should be suspended in the same way, it will be arranged equatorially or at right angles to the axis as in fig. 142. Such substances are diamagnetic, and they are commonly supposed to repel the magnetic currents. This, as I have learned, is a mistake and they assume that position because the diamagnetic axis crosses these substances laterally instead of longitudinally, as is done in the case of magnetic substances: thus the following
| Fig. 142. 11 nrse-filioe Magnet'Magneto-electricity flowing from the positive pole of the magnet, through the substance laterally and into the negative pole of the magnet. |
represents a diamagnetic substance between the magnetic poles:—
Chemico-electricity flowing from the
___5. negative pole of the magnet in opposite
direction into the positive or north pole of magnet.
The following represents the axis of a magnetic substance:—
Magneto-electricity flowing from Chemico-electricity flowing from
positive pole of magnet through the $, N. negative pole of magnet in opposite
substance longitudinally and entering ~ direction and entering the positive pole
the positive pole of magnet. of magnet.
2. A little better conception of the distinctions which seem to arrange all substances under two divisions, the magnetic and diamagnetic, may be obtained by considering figs. 143 and 144. Fig. 143 shows a bar of steel, S N, which has been converted
Fi«, 143- Magnetic lines as shown by Fig. 144. Supposed Diamagnetic lines of
iron filings. Force.
into a magnet, N being the north or positive pole, and S the south or negative pole. When a pane of glass or a piece of card-board, sprinkled with iron filings, is laid upon this bar, the filings will be arranged as shown in the cut, and some will also be thrown upward in a bristling attitude which cannot be shown here. It will readily be perceived from the lines running longitudinally that there must be polarized lines of atoms running conversely from S to N, and from the curves which sweep directly across the bar that there must be transverse lines in the direction of T, L and L, T. The many curves of force which must sweep in and out at the ends do not appear distinctly. It will be seen that the longitudinal lines are sufficiently strong to prevent the transverse forces from passing at a point midway between the poles where the magnet is weakest, although consequent points of special power are sometimes formed between the poles where the forces break through, especially in a long magnet.
3. In fig. 144, illustrating what is probably the pathway of forces in one kind of diamagnetism, if not in all, the arrangement of atoms is quite different, being on the law of transverse diagonals, some modification of which is no doubt the universal law in diamagnetism, just as lines directly transverse or nearly so, are required for magnetism. Before going further the reader should be familiar with the combination of atoms as described in previous figures, especially 139 and 140. In fig. 144 we will suppose a diamagnetic substance 3 has diagonal polarizations in the direction of 2, 7, and 4, 6, or still more diagonally. When the electro ethers are radiated powerfully by means of electrical or magnetic excitement into two or more general directions, diagonally transverse, those passing through the atmosphere in one direction must create currents which will deflect some of the lines passing in the other direction sufficiently inward to cause them to be drawn in by the vortical suction, and thus lines of force would be formed as in the figure. In such transverse diagonals, there being no longitudinal lines, a passage way is naturally easily forced through the shorter pathway from side to side, whereas it must be a difficult matter to force it lengthwise.
4. In speaking of magneto and chemico electricity as passing through diamagnetic substances, I simply mean that they do so under the pressure of magnetic excitement. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that the ethers which usually course through diamagnetic substances differ from each other in different bodies and especially from ferro-magnetism. It has been found that a powerfiil magnet will either attract or repel all substances. Those substances which are spoken of as being repelled by it are doubtless simply diamagnetic.
5. We learn then, that while a magnetic substance consists of converse lines of atoms which cross each other at right angles, or nearly so, the lines of a diamagnetic substance cross each other diagonally, or consist of transverse diagonals. These diagonals may be the natural arrangement of atoms in a diamagnetic substance, or may be polarized into this shape by the power of light or electricity. Diamagnets have a very much feebler attractive power than magnets, as comparatively few of their lines are bent into curves. The flame of a candle as well as electric light has been found to be diamagnetic, and the sunlight coming to us in convergent and divergent rays and polarizing the atmosphere accordingly, must impart more of the diamagnetic than the magnetic style of influence, as electricians have ascertained. The names of some of the diamagnetic substances as ascertained by Faraday, commencing with the most decided, are bismuth, phosphorus, antimony, zinc, tin, cadmium, sodium, flint-glass, mercury, lead, silver, copper, water, gold alcohol, ether, arsenic, uranium, rhodium, iridium, tungsten, nitrogen, etc. Faraday says that man as a whole is diamagnetic. This is doubtless true, the right side being positive, the left negative, all the way from the head to the feet, as will be shown hereafter. The living human form may also be called a series of magnets.
XXXII. Phosphorescence.
1. "The sulphur compounds of calcium, strontium and barium (which should be kept in hermetically sealed glass tubes) do not exhibit the faintest light in a dark room. Moreover, if they be covered with a yellow glass and illuminated with the light of a magnesium lamp, they remain as dark as before. But if the yellow be exchanged for a blue glass, and the magnesium light be allowed to play upon them for a few seconds only, they emit in the dark a soft light, each powder having its own proper tint of color." (Prof. Eugene Lommel's Light and Color.) This power of shining in the dark is termed phosphorescence, and as in the above case it is developed by the electrical blue, so in all cases must some principle of electricity be used in its production. The electrical principle strikes some sensitive substance for which it has a chemical affiinity, and creates such activity of atomic action as to render it partly incandescent.
2. "Mademoiselle Linnaeus" says Pouchet, "first discovered that the monkshood sent out passing gleams of fight which were generally attributed to electricity."
3. In phosphorus, touchwood, fireflies and different kinds of marine animals, the fight is awakened by certain physiological as well as chemical processes in which electricity and heat are combined. The gentle style of combustion which constitutes phosphorescence, seems to be attended with so fine a grade of heat as to be imperceptible as heat to most persons.
4. Several substances may be exposed to brilliant fight like that of the sun or a magnesium fight, and on darkening the room will continue to glow for hours, emitting the red, blue, green, etc., according to the nature of the substances. Alumina, when phosphorescent, emits a red fight; diamond, from its refrangibil-ity, emits most of the colors. Phosphate of lime, fluor spar, etc., phosphoresce with different colors. Metals, liquids, &c., do not phosphoresce from the power of light.
XXXIII. Fluorescence, Calorescence and Kindred Principles.
1. This is a proper place to show how nearly the ethers, and the spirals through which they pass, must correspond in grade with each other. In music, a stretched cord or a tuning fork will respond to vibrations of the air which synchronize with their own, so in atoms, as we have already seen, each spiral cord must vibrate to and invite onward that grade of ether whose waves are simultaneous with its own movements. Thus the red forming spiral naturally invites a certain grade of ether; the blue, being finer and more frequent of movement, invites a finer ether, while the violet and the space above the violet invite still finer ones. What I wish to state here is, that although this is the general law, yet under the stimulus of electricity, or fight, or heat, or chemical action, a grade of ether may at times be forced through spirals naturally too fine for it, and at other times through spirals not fine enough for it. Take glass for instance. Its spirals being of the grade suited to the ethers which go to make fight, are too fine to admit the ethers of frictional or galvanic electricity at any ordinary pressure, consequently glass is used as an insulator to prevent their passage. If we charge a bar of metal strongly with electricity, however, and place a pane of glass near one end where the electrical tension is great, another bar of metal held on the other side will become charged by induction through the glass. In the same way, the electrical currents of a magnet are so powerful as readily to sweep through glass in all directions, as may be seen by placing iron filings on the upper side of glass and a magnet below. It is evident that all ordinary grades of electricity must become somewhat refined by being strained through glass.
2. Calorescence. Again, take an opaque metal, such as iron or copper for instance. This has its seven intra spirals, as facts go to show, corresponding with the color spirals and yet of a coarser grade. If they were of as fine a grade as the color spirals they would transmit all the colors in their natural state just as glass or water or the asmosphere does, and hence be transparent. As the metal becomes heated its atoms expand with violent motion, and its ethers are absorbed and transmitted with power. When heated to 700° F. it begins to emit a dull red color in the dark. Why is this? The following seems to be the answer:—The thermo spirals which are the first to respond to heat, being put into violent motion, agitate the thermel and red of the iron, or rather the spirals corresponding to the thermel and red, into such a violent whirl as to draw on and propel to the eye not only the ethers which naturally answer to it, but a certain amount of a still finer ether which constitutes the element of red. This transmutation of power under extreme action is common in nature. So fine a substance as the air when in violent motion, may carry so coarse a substance as water into the sky, and this coarse element of water may be made to move so rapidly, as to sweep a current of air along with it. Even a cannon ball will at times kill a man without touching him, simply by the terrific atmospheric forces which it arouses. So, reasoning from the known to the unknown, we see how a coarser current in violent action may draw on or propel a little finer current of a color-ether. As the heat rises to 1000° F. the red-orange spiral, which is contiguous to the red, becomes sufficiently agitated to put into play the red-orange ethers and thus the iron appears red-orange. When reaching 1100°, the spiral answering to yellow is reached, and so the metal is said to be at a yellow heat; when the heat ranges from 1400° to 3280°, a sufficient amount of the green and blue-green has been reached to form, when combined with the lower colors, white, consequently the iron is said to be at a white heat. When still hotter, the blue and indigo become so intense as to predominate and cause a blue heat. This shows three things, 1st, that ethers can be propelled by spirillae which are naturally too coarse for them; 2dly, that iron and other metals have the same number and general system of gradation in their intra-spirals as have the color spirals of transparent substances; 3dly, that in circumstances of great activity, a coarser spirilla may work with a color ether somewhat too fine for it, and not very much pervert the color itself. It is true that what we call red hot is not a pure red as compared with carmine and the other colors thus caused, though luminous, are not absolutely pure, but are a close approach to it and become the more pure by being strained through the color spirillae of the asmosphere which are of the right grade. This development of colors in metals and other bodies by different grades of heat is well called Calorescence by Tyndall.
3. On the other hand white light may be transferred into the coarser spirals of a black substance and transform its color forces into heat, through the attractive power of chemical affinity.
4. The invisible portion of the solar spectrum above the violet is sometimes called ultraviolet, which means extreme violet. But we have seen that this portion is not violet at all, but rather a finer grade of reddish color towards which the violet progresses and consequently such a term as trans-violet (beyond the violet) would seem more proper. The invisible portion below the red is not properly ultra or extreme red, as it is sometimes called, but rather the trans-red (beyond the red), the beginning of which is the thermel.
5. The trans-violet may suddenly be made visible in the form of blue and sometimes lavender if its rays are made to pass through fluor spar, or a decoction of the bark of horse-chestnut, or a solution of sulphate of quinine, etc. This is an example of fine ethers being drawn on into spirillae which are naturally too coarse for them, by means of the chemical affinity which these substances have for them, and is called Fluorescence, from fluor spar. Fluorescence, then, is caused by straining the transviolet colors which are too fine to be seen, through spirillae, whose movements are sufficiently slow to affect the vision. The process of lowering a color to a coarser grade is sometimes called the degradation of light.
6. We may thus see how several mysteries are cleared up by this department of the etherio-atomic law, and new light thrown upon the convertibility offerees.
XXXIV.—Galvanism. 10
1. Galvanism is electricity which is developed by chemical action, just as frictional electricity is developed by mechanical and thermal action. The one may be artificially developed by aid of what is called the battery, usually supplied with acidulated water and two heterogeneous metals; the other, by means of the electrical machine, which is supplied with a glass plate or cylinder. This is revolved against some ffictionizing substance, such as gutta percha or leather, which contains a more negative quality of electricity. Galvanism develops chemico-electricity, galvano-electricity, and to some extent magneto-electricity.
2. Water, as can be shown, naturally winds up into ball-coils whose threads are polarized lines of atoms composed of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen, which has an immense thermal action of its atoms, far greater than that of any other known substance, tends to draw the other atoms around to itself, and thus the winding process is commenced. Drops of water are spherical ball-coils. Acids are highly electrical and abound in chemico as well as other kinds of electricity. One part of sulphuric acid to 8, 10, or 12 parts of soft water is generally used, though other acids and substances are frequently employed.
3. This powerful acid thus combined has its thermal and axial forces especially aroused and immediately unwinds and straightens out by its swift forces, the polarized lines of water, loosening the cohesion of its own atoms of oxygen and hydrogen, and probably arranging them conversely with those of that fluid according to a necessity which we have already seen. Two metals of diverse character are placed in this liquid, one of which, as zinc for instance, must have a much greater affinity for oxygen than the other, which is usually copper or platinum. In fig. 145,
Z is the zinc plate, and C the copper plate, set into the diluted sulphuric acid, and connected at the top with a wire. No. 1 shows a polarized line of molecules of water; No. 2 consists of a contiguous line of the molecules of sulphuric acid polarized in the opposite direction. The galvano, and doubtless the magneto electric current, sweeps through the line of water No. 1, enters the zinc, passes up and around through the wire and through the copper plate back into the zinc again, and so continues as before. The chemico, and perhaps some other electric currents, under the active movement of the sulphuric acid, pass through line No. 2 from the zinc to the copper and then around through the wire back into the zinc and acid again. What gives the starting impulse of these great forces? In the first place, in the polarized lines of water, the atoms of oxygen nearest the zinc rendered intensely active by the presence of sulphuric acid, are both swept and drawn by affinitive currents into the vortexes of the zinc, and consequently are torn away from their affinitive atoms of hydrogen. These atoms of hydrogen thus set free seize upon the atoms of oxygen of the contiguous molecules, and thus their atoms of hydrogen become free. This second set of freed hydrogen atoms seizes the third set of oxygen atoms, and so the process goes on until all the molecules leading to the plate of copper have thus been readjusted. When the last molecule contiguous to the copper has been reached, the freed particles of hydrogen finding no oxygen to combine with, rise to the top of the liquid and emerge into the air in small bubbles. The vortex end of this line of atoms with suction made especially powerful by such an active chemical readjustment, draws on the affinitive currents from the copper itself, and this again from the wire, and the wire from the upper portion of the zinc until original currents through the water have again been reached, and so the current is rendered continuous as long as the wire joins the plates and the chemical action is kept up. The atoms of oxygen which are first driven and drawn into the vortexes of the zinc in connection with the sulphuric acid, loosen and sepa-
rate these contiguous atoms of zinc which encase them from the original metal, and fall into the liquid as the sulphate of zinc, there to be dissolved. This leaves the atoms of zinc exposed for the next set of atoms of oxygen, which rush in and cause another redjustment all the way to the copper. This process is continued until the zinc is eaten away, or the acid exhausted of its power.
4. "If the zinc, after being thoroughly cleansed by immersion in the acidulated water, be rubbed with mercury, it immediately acquires a bright amalgamated surface, and when restored to the water it no longer exerts any decomposing action, and particles of hydrogen are no longer seen to rise from it. The instant, however, that a connection is made by a wire or otherwise, with the conducting plate, hydrogen bubbles at once begin to be discharged from it as before. The cause of this is not understood, but constant use is made of the fact to protect the zinc plates from corrosion, except during the period when the battery is actually in action." (Pynchon's "Chemical Forces.")
5. The above mystery is readily solved by the principles already illustrated in paragraph XXXIII. The mercury which forms the amalgam of the zinc evidently has spirals too fine to be penetrated by the currents which ordinarily draw the oxygen up to the zinc, but when the circuit is made complete by uniting the wires, the electro motive force becomes sufficiently powerful to drive them through.
6. Electricians, being unacquainted with the laws of atomic action, commonly suppose that the leading electric current must move from the zinc to the copper because chemical action is in that direction, but the error of this is easily seen. The chemico-electric current which flows through the sulphuric acid passes in that direction, but it is really less penetrating than the other, although its ruder style of power may produce a more immediate effect. It moves in a direction opposite to that of the water because the atoms are polarized conversely to those of that fluid. The reasons for saying the chemico electricity circulates through the acid will also be given in the paragraph XXXVI. The fact that the chemico electricity may in galvanism become a seemingly positive current, stronger in electrolysis than even the currents in the opposite direction, shows that a grade of electricity, naturally weak, can be made powerful by an intense acid. In the magnet, however, its weakness is more evident.
XXXV.—Why does Frictional Electricity move Mainly in one Direction?
1. We will suppose that in fig. 146, a rubber of an electrical machine should be passed over the atoms from right to left. The motion being in the same direction as the spirilla; of the lower line of atoms, 1, 4, 9, would intensify their motion. On the upper line of atoms, however, the spirilla: being in the opposite direction would be impeded in their action. The negative eddy 3, would be robbed of a portion of its ethers by the positive eddy 1, and by the time it should pass axially from 7 to 8 its principle of electricity would be very feeble. A movement from left to right would set the upper spirals into active movement and impede the lower. A movement from 3 to 1 would have the same effect. A movement from 1 to 3, would arouse the lower spirals and deaden the upper, so that in whatever way the friction is directed, only the alternate spirals, which move in one direction, are appreciably affected by any ordinary action, in any one part of a substance. The common supposition that there are two kinds of electricity moving in opposite directions in ffictionized substances, would seem, then, to be an error.
2. Magnetism has its bipolar conditions and its different electricities moving in opposite directions, but these are accounted for on the same principle as the same thing in galvanism, magnetism usually being generated through the aid of galvanism. The loadstone or natural magnet, composed of the oxide of iron, probably owes its dual polarity to liquids and elements of the soil which act on the galvanic principle.
XXXVI. Positive and Negative Electricities.
1. It is now time to attack this great mystery and see what light can be afforded by the etherio-atomic law. "Notwithstanding the great importance of the numerous electrical phenomena, we are still ignorant of their cause," says Ganot. Chambers's Encyclopedia admits that the terms positive and negative, as generally used, are "meaningless," but are adopted for convenience. Certain substances, when rubbed or beaten, send forth more positive electrical effect than others. Thus fric-tionized glass produces a decided action and is said to have positive or + electricity, while frictionized gutta percha, shellac or resin, being feebler, are said to have negative or — electricity. Why should one substance thus have stronger currents than another? One great cause of electrical power in bodies is their superior polarization, as the others must sweep with much greater force through unbroken lines than they would through amorphous bodies, or those in which short or confused lines prevail. But why should some bodies possess this finer polarization and crystallization? Evidently because they have spirals which invite the finer and swifter electricities that are so powerful as to straighten out the atoms into continuous lines. Take the two substances, glass and shellac, for instance. Shellac is evidently more amorphous than glass, from having coarser and weaker electricities. Glass, as we have seen, must have spirillae adapted to the electro-lumino as well as the magneto ethers, and capable of thorough polarization from its power to transmit light. Shellac has no spirillae fine enough to admit light, and very probably has the chem-ico-electricity as its prominent force, which would account for its different and weaker character. But frictional electricity, it may be said, does not deal with these more interior electricities. Not so directly, I admit, although powerful ffactionizing machines have developed even galvano and magneto electricities by reaction, no doubt, upon the intra-spirals. It is evident, however, that if glass has longer lines of polarization than shellac, its frictional electricity must be more positive than the same electricity of that substance.
2. But another principle must be considered. Metals doubtless have quite as long lines of polarization as glass or silk. Why, then, will they not produce the attractive and electrical effect when rubbed that these substances do? Because they are such good conductors that their electricity escapes. Glass, silk, flannel, etc., have a sufficiency of transverse lines to deflect a portion of their currents into curves somewhat like the magnetic, which accounts for their power to attract light substances, such as hairs, feathers, etc., and also for their poor conduction. Unlike the magnet, however, we can scarcely say that there are two electricities moving in opposite directions in such substances as they are not bipolar.
3. "The electricity developed on a body," says Ganot, "depends on the body rubbed. Thus glass becomes negatively electrified when rubbed with catskin, but positively when rubbed with silk." In the following list, the substances are arranged in such an order, that each becomes positively electrified when rubbed with any of the bodies following, but negatively when rubbed with any of those which precede it: 1 catskin; 2, flannel; 3, glass; 4, silk; 5, the hand; 6, wood; 7, metals; 8, caoutchouc (India Rubber); 9 resin; 10, sulphur; 11, gutta percha; 12, gun cotton. The ordinary supposition that each substance can develop two different kinds of electricities in other substances is unnecessary and unnatural. (See P. XXXV.) The following seems to be an easy solution of the difficulty: glass becomes negative when rubbed with catskin because its currents are overpowered and driven inward by the stronger currents of the latter. It becomes positive when rubbed with silk because its currents are strong enough to drive inward those of that substance. The same principle holds with the other substances. The metals may naturally have swifter styles of electricity than catskin or silk, but these latter, by their curved and transverse lines, can hold the electricity until its tension is sufficient to overpower even the metals. A negative body, or part of a body, is that in which the influx electricities preponderate over the efflux, while a positive body or part of a body, is that in which the efflux electricities preponderate over the influx. It is easy to see, then, why positive and negative conditions of electricity attract each other, as the influx or vortical currents of the latter attract the torrents of the former, and it is also plain that two positives must repel because their torrents dash against each other, or that two negatives must also be inharmonious as they draw in opposite directions. The law is that contrasting electricities attract, similar electricities repel.
4 Why one end of a magnet is more positive than the other, as we have already seen, comes from the fact of a more interior and potent electricity. Fogs, snow and rain are nearly always charged with a positive grade of electricity, and clouds quite ffe-quently are. The earth is negative in the daytime to the atmospheric electricities, which, under the polarizing power and stimulus of the sunlight, are radiated into its surface, while in the night it becomes positive to the atmosphere, radiating its electric currents upward and outward. A thunder-cloud with its transverse and irregular lines, is capable of holding the electricity in curves around its surface until a large amount is collected and the electrical tension becomes very great. Suppose, now, that this cloud, so strongly or positively charged, should approach another cloud less charged. The vortical attractions of this feebler cloud will cause this mass of electricity to burst the barriers of the nonconducting atmosphere and dash into its neighbor with an explosive and frictional force which gives the effect of lightning and thunder. The clouds are relatively + and — in their electrical condition. When a positive cloud approaches the earth, which is negative, the electricity passes into the earth. When a negatively charged cloud approaches the earth, however, we sometimes have the ascending lightning, the electricity passing from the earth to the cloud.
XXXVII Chemical Affinity.
1. This great mystery of chemical affinity which has so long puzzled the chemists, becomes comparatively simple by understanding the working of ethers and atoms. The reader, who has not become familiar with the matter already explained, should go back and study the form and working of atoms, together with the etherial winds offeree which sweep them together, or drive them asunder. Chemical affinity results principally from the two following laws:
2. The leading cause of chemical affinity appears in the fact that atoms of one kind, having a strong thermal and vortical action, become thus expanded so as to receive far within themselves atoms of another kind which are drawn in narrower by means of their strong axial or electrical action.
3. There must be a similarity in the character and size of some of the leading spirilla of the combining atoms so that the same ethers may glide unimpeded through the whole to bind them together by a common propulsion and suction. The first of the above
10
rules gives the law of diversity, the second the law of unity in chemical combination.
4. It is easy to see how the wide mouthed heat-atom, with its powerful vortical forces, can draw the narrower cold producing atom into itself, while on the other hand, the powerful axial forces from behind drive the narrower electrical atom into the
wide one. It is easy to see, also, how such a powerful affinitive action can drive the one atom into the other all the way up to the ridge formed by the widest thermo spirals which are near the vortex, as represented in fig. 147, while ordinary cohesion is not strong enough to drive the atom into the encasing one farther than to the first or positive thermo spirals, as seen in figs. 136 and 137, which are non-chemical. But why do I know that the basic atom in chemical affinity encases the other up to these larger thermo spirals? Because, first, I know that chemical union is closer than that of ordinary cohesion, cones-quently it must sink the atoms deeper than to the smaller or positive thermo spirals. Having surmounted these there will be no barrier until the larger spirals are reached; and, secondly, chemical affinity hides the color spirals of the encased atom. Thus carbon is a black substance, while potassium and sodium are white. According to the 2d rule, what should their color be when combined chemically into carbonate of potassa, and carbonate of soda—that of the black carbon, or that of the white potassium and sodium? It should be that of the encasing atom, and the encasing or thermal atoms here must be the potassium and sodium which are electro-positive, as will be shown hereafter, while the carbon, being more electrical, must have its atoms encased and thus have their color spirals hidden by the white of the potassium, etc. In the same way common salt, which is formed of chlorine and sodium, shows only the white color of the latter, the atoms of which entirely swallow up the greenish yellow color of the former. See Chromo-Chemistry for further illustrations.
5. It is important to dwell a moment on the causes which give to atoms these dual styles of form by which they are enabled to be combined so beautifully and powerfully. Fig. 148 shows the encasing atom made broad by its thermal activity.
The figure represents two types of atoms, one represented by the dotted line, of which potassium is a good example, and the other shown by the main line, of which hydrogen is a good example. Hydrogen, having more specific heat than any other substance must have the broadest atoms, taken all in all, and yet potassium, with far less specific heat, can outdo the hydrogen as shown in its power to tear the atoms of oxygen away from it when thrown into water for instance. How is this? Hydrogen, which is distinguished for its delicacy of action, doubtless has an abundance of fine spirillae which quickly kindle into action the main spiral, and this commences to lessen before it gets so near the negative end. The potassium has doubtless much coarser spirillae and corresponding coarse ethers, among which the chemico is doubtless prominent, and working more slowly does not attain its maximum power until the vortex is nearly reached. This gives it a powerful vortex and hence great attractive force. Hydrogen, having an immense amount of heat, has very probably more than three thermo spirals. Its chemical action is fine and powerful, but if its intensity of movement were to be transferred to the vortex it would be terrific and kindle into flame every time a chemical union with other atoms should occur. As it is, it is a great leading developer of heat and light. Sodium, magnesium and other alkaline and electro-positive elements belong to this general style of atom, ranking between the extremes of the hydrogen and potassium. This includes most of the metals whose thermal spirals and ethers are sufficiently coarse and slow of action not to gain their full power until the vortex is approximated, so that they become wide mouthed and especially attractive to the other style of atoms.
6. Fig. 149 presents the more narrow and electrical style, in which the axial activities are more potent than the thermal, and in which even the thermal spirals are probably more oblique than in the broader atoms as shown in the diagram. It includes such atoms as those of the oxygen, sulphur, chlorine, and the other electro-negative substances. This grade of atoms, among which the oxygen is foremost, is prominent in acids in which electricity rules, although hydrogen intensifies the same. The dotted line shows an atom of this grade whose vortex is somewhat expanded and its positive end drawn in small. This is a good type of an atom of oxygen, whose pointed end being small by being the most electrical of atoms, makes it especially suited to penetrate other substances and oxydize them.11 More than that its vortex is sufficiently large and active to attract other atoms into itself, and this diversity in its two poles is a great leading cause of its being able to combine with all other elements excepting fluorine. Another reason why it can combine thus universally is that it must have a diversity of spirillae by means of which it is supplied with those ethers that work harmoniously with the atoms of other substances and drive them together. It is known to be the most electro-negative of substances, which is a term that signifies it is the most electrical. Faraday has shown its magnetic character which proves that it has magneto-electricity. Its wide vortex and the fact that it affinitizes with metals and so many substances in which chemico-electricity must exist, argue that chemico ether is one of its forces. As a gas or liquid in air and water, it transmits light, being transparent, which shows that the color electricities may pass through it. Thus does oxygen have affinitive spirals, which are able to receive more or less well the thermo, chemico, thermo-lumino, electro, electro-lumino, galvano and magnetic ethers which, with the form resulting from connection with them, makes it on the whole the most powerful known agent of chemical action, and constituting, according to Dr. Att-field, about half of the substance of the globe. Gold, silver and platinum, and a few other bodies, have but feeble affinities for oxygen excepting when the added electricities of sulphur are brought into action, consequently they maintain their brightness under all ordinary circumstances.
7. The thermo spiral at 2, in fig 149, shows how far the atom generally sinks into the encasing atom in chemical combinations, while that at 1 shows how far it sinks in cases of ordinary cohesion or mere mixtures, as in the oxygen and nitrogen which constitute air, as well as in other substances. In chemical affinity, however, in which there is an alternation of both the narrow and broad atoms, it is not probable that the broader atom sinks into the narrower as far as the narrower sinks into the broader in many cases. Thus in common salt there is an alternation of sodium as the broad mouthed, and chlorine as the narrow-pointed atom, forming when combined what is called a molecule of salt. The chlorine sinks far down into the sodium and hides its color. When the next molecule is joined to this, the broader sodium atom has to be inserted into that of the chlorine, but it evidently does not become encased in it farther than the first or positive thermo spiral at 1, because if it entered as far as 2, its color-spirals would be covered up and it would no longer appear white. It is quite probable, however, that in the case of sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and some similar combinations in which the forces move with tremendous power, all the atoms are driven into each other up to their shoulders, in other words to number 2, and such may be the case with water, which is really the most powerful solvent, taking it all in all, to be found in nature. Closely as the atoms are driven together in sulphuric acid and water, they become three per cent, smaller still when these substances are combined equally, thus showing that the electrical forces are made even more powerful by their union.
8. Acids are substances in which the electrical forces predominate, as I have already remarked, oxygen, or some other electrical element, being the acidifying principle, while hydrogen, also a common ingredient of acids, although possessing a predominant thermism, must yet be highly stimulating to the electrical forces. For proof of the cold, electrical nature of acids, see the chapter on Chromo Chemistry, XVII, 6, 7, 8.
9. Alkalies, the contrast of acids, belong to the thermal side of the question, and are included among electro-positives and broad mouthed atoms. As the result of this they must be expansive and relaxing in their general character. This is verified in our medical books, which prescribe as their principle laxatives and purgatives substances which have alkaline bases such as magnesia, sulphate of potassium, sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salts), tartrate of potassium and sodium (Rochelle salts), etc.
Citrate of magnesia, Vichy water and some other alkaline drinks are called cooling, but this can come only from their reactionary effect, or from the electrical principle with which they are combined.
It is perfectly clear, then, why acids and alkalies have such an affinity for each other, as they include the dual conditions of narrow and broad forms, &c.
10. Color Affinities may be merely mentioned here. In the chapter on Chromo-Chemistry this whole subject will be developed much more minutely. The reader has already seen that the colors on what is sometimes called the warm end of the spectrum, including red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange, yellow and yellow-green, are made in connection with the spirillae of the thermal or widening portion of atoms, while the cold colors, blue-green, blue, indigo-blue, indigo, violet-indigo, violet, and dark violet, are made in connection with the spirillae of the axial or contracting portion of atoms. It is evident at once, then, that substances in which the thermal colors predominate must affini-tize with those in which the electrical colors rule. But what is the exact affinity of each color? Let us take the blue-green for instance. The very spiral, or more exactly the spirilla which works as the blue green principle in the axis of an atom, works as the principle of thermel on the outside (See fig. 135). Is it not evident, then, that when the thermel is swept by strong ethers the vibration extends to the inner blue-green portion and vice versa? Again the axial spirilla for blue is simply the inner portion of the thermal spirilla for red. When the blue part is quickened the red part responds by reaction, or when the red part is quickened the blue part responds by direct action. Is it not plain, then, that a broad atom in which red rules would naturally draw into its vortex the narrower electrical atom in which blue rules, especially as the inner portion of each has a leading spirilla of exactly the same size and responding to the same ethers, while both thermal and axial forces must quicken each other? On the same principle, then, the following are the affinitive colors:
Thermel (invisible), affinitizes with Blue-Green.
Red " Blue.
Red-Orange " Indigo-Blue.
Orange ai Yellow-Orange Yellow Yellow-Green
affinitizes with
11
и
и
Indigo.
Violet-Indigo.
Violet.
Dark-Violet.
For abundant facts in proof that these are affinitive colors, see Chromo-Chemistry (XX), and Chromo-Dynamics.
XXXVIII. Are Atoms Animals?
We have already seen that atoms constitute the most wonderful of machines. Has the reader noticed, also, that they are formed almost like an animal? On their outside we have the large and small arteries in the shape of the 1st, 2d, and 3d spirillae within which the etherial blood flows, and the tubing which constitutes the frame work of these spirillae, wherein dwell the still finer ethers that may be called their nerve force. The axial spirillae passing in the other direction on the law of electricity constitute the veins. Does the reader notice the remarkable analogy to the human system? Do not the arteries carry the warm red blood in one direction, while the veins carry the more electrical purple blood in the other? We have the ligo as the spine, the tubing of the main spiral as the bowels, that of the spirillae as the nerves, the vortex as the point of ingress, the torrent as the point of egress, the channels laid out by the external spirillae as the arteries, those by the axial spirillae as the veins, while the ethers constitute the blood and nervous aura. And yet a single atom can never constitute a living animal. Different atoms must be combined on the law of chemical affinity before we can presume to have that swift flow of force which helps to inaugurate life. The space is too limited here to show how lines of active atoms may, under the stimulus of a certain amount of heat, be wound up into spirals, spiral balls, tubes, etc., in a way to constitute the static life of vegetable growths or the locomotive life of animal existences. Hints could be given of how organized vegetable life developed in connection with the soil could establish a flow of fine ethers and gases constituting its vitality, and then how a neighboring organization of finer atoms might eventually draw off these ethers and life forces of the vegetable into itself and succeed in reaching a grade of being sufficiently active to exist a brief time aside from the soil which
would thus constitute animal life, and again how this animal life might give up its fine forces to some organization a little higher still and so on until this everlasting progression and evolution from lower to higher conditions, working through countless ages, has attained to the present marvelous developments of vegetable, animal and human life. Is it atheistic to speak of this sublime law of nature because it is seemingly self-acting? By no means, for as we have seen (X) there must be some infinite spiritualizing Power beyond coarse matter, beyond even the finest ethers, before natural forms can be potentialized into life and motion. The conception of Deific wisdom which can arrange such wonderful laws and self-acting conditions is far grander than the God of confusion, too often conceived of, who works very generally without law and who must be constantly supplementing the deficiencies of things by some special efforts.
XXXIX. Count Rumford and the Dynamic Theory.
1. We have already seen the one-sidedness of a mere dynamic theory of force on the one hand, or of a mere material or fluidic theory on the other hand, see Chapter Second, XIV—XVIII. We have also seen in this Chapter, how many mysteries of matter and force stand revealed by uniting both theories in one on the etherio-atomic law. In order that this mere dynamic theory, now so much advocated by scientists, should if possible be laid on the shelf so as no longer to retard the progress of correct knowledge, a little more should be said in this place.
2. In 1798, an eminent philosopher, by the name of Count Rumford, read an essay on Heat before the Royal Society, which has been the stronghold of the dynamic theorists, and is perhaps the most plausible thing that has thus far been presented on that side of the question. Of this essay Prof. Tyndall says, "Rumford, in this memoir, annihilates the material theory of heat. Nothing more powerful on the subject has since been written." (Heat as a Mode of Motion, p. 39.) In this essay the Count explained an experiment of boring into steel, while 2Vi gallons of water surrounded the boring apparatus, and thus developing an amount of heat that caused the water to boil. Seizing the small amount of steel dust that had been caused by the boring, he had held it up and exclaimed: "Is it possible that the very considerable quantity of heat produced in this experiment, could have been furnished by so inconsiderable a quantity of dust?" I quote his strongest point, Italics and all, in the following:—"What is heat—is there any such thing as an igneous fluid? Is there anything, that with propriety can be called caloric? We have seen that a very considerable quantity of heat may be excited by the friction of two metallic surfaces and given off in a constant stream or flux in all directions, without interruption or intermission and without any signs of diminution or exhaustion. In reasoning on this subject we must not forget that most remarkable circumstance that the source of heat generated by friction in these experiments appeared evidently to be inexhaustible. It is hardly necessary to add that anything which any insulated body or system of bodies can continue to furnish without limitation cannot possibly be a material substance; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in those experiments except it be motion."
3. It will be seen from the above that Rumford was reasoning on the supposition that heat must be confined to the portion bored, and that die metal acted as an insulator to prevent heat from coming into the water from without. But we have seen how heat and electricity when under stimulus can pass through all substances including atmosphere, water and metals, and how easily the ethers can sweep through steel, as in the magnet, for instance, in which the forces come from the atmosphere and pass into the atmosphere again, as shown by the iron filings which they influence. We have seen that atoms are a kind of wind-mills or fan-ning-mills into which and out of which the currents of ether flow, their spiral wheel-work becoming especially active when frictionized or pressed so that both the caloric and electricity must be drawn along with the greater rapidity. The Count's reasoning then is on a par with the following, with reference to a fan-ning-mill:—The fanning-mill is turned and a very considerable quantity of air is "excited and given off in a constant stream or flux" in various directions, "without interruption or intermission, and without any signs of diminution or exhaustion. In reasoning on this subject we must not forget that most remarkable circumstance that the source of wind (heat) generated in these experiments appeared evidently to be inexhaustible. It is hardly necessary to add, that any" air which a fanning-mill, covered with a wire screen (insulated), "can continue to furnish without limitation, cannot possibly be a material substance; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in those experiments, except it be motion."
4. This is parallel to the common reasoning of to-day on this subject. To speak of insulating or shutting out the heat currents by means of steel is very similar to insulating or shutting off the air currents from a fanning-mill by a wire screen. Very many persons are able to feel, as I myself have sometimes done, the warm currents flowing from the negative pole of a magnet and the cold currents flowing from its positive pole. Baron Reichen-bach furnishes numerous examples of persons who can do this, and who can see fiery emanations from both poles, the warm red flames coming from the south pole, and blue flames from the north pole, which is more positively electrical. (See Chromo-Dynamics.) Suppose a person should hold his hand in front of the fanning-mill, and, as he feels a strong breeze emanating from it should declare there was nothing there but motion, would his observation be considered very scientific? If not, neither is it scientific to reason in the same way about the ethereal breezes. It is absurd to suppose that there can be motion without something to make the motion.
5. A similar error was committed by Faraday in the measurement of electricity. As Rumford presumed that heat can be shut in by a bar of steel so did Faraday presume that electricity can be enclosed and then measured in а скор of water, as signified in the following sentence:—"One grain of water acidulated to promote conduction, has a quantity of electricity equal to a powerful flash of lightning." (Experimental Researches in Electricity, p. 250.) In answer to this statement which has been widely quoted as a fact, I would say 1st, that a grain of water is about equivalent to one drop. A powerful flash of lightning from a cloud doubtless comes from thousands of drops; is it to be supposed that one drop should equal this? 2dly, we have seen under the head of Galvanism (XXXIV) that acidulated water, by means of chemical action, brings not only its own electricities into play but those of the surrounding metals and wires. How then shall its electricity be measured aside from theirs?
6. That all the fine forces of light, heat, electricity, etc., include both atomic vibrations and ethers, should by this time be quite clear to the reader, especially as on this theory so many mysteries of nature stand revealed which on the mere dynamic plan must ever remain inexplicable. I have myself collected several colors on chemically prepared paper, and this directly from the sunlight, with only colored glass between, thus proving that light is a substance as well as the result of vibrations. The following from Prof. Henry, one of our most eminent scientists, shows the fluidic and material side of electricity:—"In a new investigation of the discharge of a Leyden jar, the facts clearly indicated the transfer of a fluid from the inside to the outside and a rebound back and forward several times in succession until equilibrium was obtained by a series of diminishing oscillations" (Patent Office Report on Agriculture in 1857.)
XL. Weight and Specific Heat of Atoms.
The specific heat in the following table is given as determined by Regnault and others, and the relative weight of atoms as established by chemists. The real weight of atoms of course cannot be ascertained. Hydrogen is the lightest substance, has the lightest atoms of any which chemists have been able to take cognizance of, and its atomic weight is called 1; the carbon being 12 times as heavy, is called 12, Oxygen 16, etc.; chemists have concluded that all atoms in a gaseous form occupy equal sizes or volumes, those of oxygen gas, for instance, occupying the same amount of space as those of hydrogen, although 16 times as heavy.
1 will give the names of the substance, then the chemical symbol, as О for Oxygen, H for Hydrogen, Na (natrium) for Sodium, Fe (ferrum) for Iron, etc. In compound substances, the different elements and the quantity of each is represented chemically by placing the symbols with figures thus: H20 for water, meaning
2 atoms (or volumes) of hydrogen to one of oxygen, or eight times as much by weight of Oxygen as of Hydrogen. In the next column I furnish the relative weight of each atom, then the specific heat which each atom has the capacity for as compared with water, then the products of the specific heat multiplied by
Atomic
weight, Hydrogen being
Specific Heat. Water being i.
Products of specific heat multiplied by Atomic Weight.
S.K
|я
u
ii
u
| Elements.Symbols. | |
|---|---|
| Gases. | |
| Hydrogen.......... | H. |
| Nitrogen............ | N. |
| Oxygen............. | O. |
| Carbonic Acid...... | co= |
| Watery Vapor. . - . | |
| Liquids. | |
| Water.............. | HsO |
| Alcohol............. | CaH60 |
| Ether.............. | С4НшО |
| Chloroform......... | CHC!3 |
| Bromine............ | Br. |
| Mercury........ .... | Hg. |
| Solids. | |
«-*- j sssa
Sodium...........
Magnesium..........
Aluminum...........
Silicon..............!
Phosphorus.........
Sulphur............
Potassium..........
Manganese..........
Iron................
Nickel...........
Copper.............
Zinc............- ..
Silver...............
Cadmium..........
Tin................
Antimony...........
Iodine .. ............
Gold..............
Platinum............
Mercury (Solid).....
Lead..............
Bismuth.............
C
Na.
Mg.
Al.
Si.
P.
S.
K.
Mn.
Fe.
Ni.
Cu.
Zn.
Ag.
Cd.
Sn.
Sb.
I.
Au.
Pt.
Hg-
Pb,
Bi.
4
16
So
200
12
23
24
27
28 31 3Z 39
M
58
633
&
112
118 122 127 196.7 >97-4 200
207
210
3.4046
-244
.2182
08
1.0000
.615
>r3
.106
•0333
>47
242
2934
2499
2143
T76
1887
2026
16956
1217
4379
10863
09515
°9S5S
05701
0^669
05623
05077
05412
03244
03243
03192
0314
03084
3.4046
3416
3-4912
6744
6.66
I.764 2 904 6.748
5- 998 5786 4.928 5.8497 6.483 6 6128 6.6934 63722 6.409 60419
6 .2 I08
6 157
6.3482
6.6356
6.I939
6.8732
6.3b
6- 3952
6.384
6.4999
6.4764
the atomic weight, which makes about the same amount for nearly all the elements. Dulong and Petit were the first to deduce the law that the specific heat of an elementary body is inversely as its atomic weight. The rule seems to be that the greater the thermal
activity and capacity of an atom the less is it liable to be loaded down and saturated with gravito-ether, whose attractive principles give the effect of weight. The heaviest atoms do not always make the heaviest substances, as bismuth, whose atoms are the heaviest of all, is not 10 times as heavy as water, while gold is so compact as to weigh over 19 times more than that fluid. The formula for Alcohol as above is C2I LO, 2 equivalents (volumes) of Carbon, 6 of Hydrogen and 1 of Oxygen, or by weight 24 parts of Carbon, 6 of Hydrogen and 16 of Oxygen.
XLI. Latent and Sensible Heat.
How is it that atoms become so vastly expanded when in the gaseous state over what they are in the liquid or solid condition, or when heated, over what they are when cold? The channels formed by the spirillae around the main spiral through which the fluid ethers flow, must ever remain much the same in size excepting under great pressure (See XXXIII), otherwise we could not get the same color continuously, or the same grade of electricity within the same spirilla, for if it grew larger or smaller it would vibrate at different rates and attract different grades of ethers. The atoms of water expand nearly 1700 times on being converted into steam, and something wonderfully elastic and spring-like must be thus projected outward by the centrifugal force of the heat currents. As the thermo-spirals form the channels of the ordinary heat currents, suppose we consider the tube of the same. Within this tube is the spiric ether, which, though static to some extent, yet like the static atoms of jelly may be supposed to move about only with incomparably more freedom than that substance from its great fineness. This spiric ether must be swung with tremendous velocity against the outside portion of the tube which contains it, causing it to project in case it is thin and elastic. That it must be thin would seem to be indicated by the fact that the billions of revolutions and vibrations of the heat forces every second, acting ever centrifugally, are constantly hurling this ether against the outward membrane and thus rendering it pliable. Knowing now as we do, that something must protrude far beyond the body of the atom, and that this something may be thus naturally accounted for by this elastic and pouch-like membrane of the spiral tubes driven outward by the momentum of the ether within, I think we may settle down upon this as the correct hypothesis. The greater the heat action, other things being equal, the farther will this membrane be projected outward. In gases, there is no power to hinder it, and it may thus extend very far. Now this spiric ether while within its tube may be called latent heat, but when it is projected outward its ribbon-like membrane, lashing against all surrounding objects gives the burning effect of sensible heat causing the thermometer to rise. Of course the fluid ethers must combine with this lashing to give the full effect of heat, and excite the spiral tube itself. But why, it may be said, is the heat of boiling water more severe to the sensation even than that of steam, as long as the atoms are so much nearer together and the lashing membrane so much shorter? Because 1700 times as many lashes are laid on in the same space by water as by steam, so they make up in number what they lack in length. This shows why the latent heat generally diminishes in proportion as the sensible heat increases, as the spiric ether lessens in its tube as it is projected externally. According to the experiments of Clement and Desormes, a certain weight of steam at 212° F. condensed into water at 32° exhibited:
Of Sensible heat, 180°—of Latent heat, 950°,—total 1130°.
The same weight at 250° manifested:
Of Sensible heat, 218°—of Latent heat, 912°—total 1130°.
The sensible heat, it will be remembered, is that which is measured by the thermometer.
XLII. Theories of Atoms.
1. It is becoming more and more apparent to men of thought that the knowledge of atoms is the foundation stone of the temple of Science. The ignoring of the fine ethers, however, which vitalize and propel the atoms, has made it a very difficult matter for them to gain any kind of rational conception of how they work. Tyndall and others very correctly conceive that there is some spiral style of movement connected with heat, and yet the following is his conception of the matter: "I have here a weight attached to a spiral string; if I twirl the weight round in the air, it tends to fly away from me, the spring stretches to a certain extent, and as I augment the speed of revolution the spring stretches still more, the distance between my hand and the weight being thus augmented. It has been thought that the augmentation of the distance between a body's atoms by heat may be also due to a revolution of its particles. And imagine the motion to continue until the spring snaps; the ball attached to it would fly off in a tangent to its former orbit, and thus represent an atom freed by heat from the force of cohesion, which is rudely represented by our spring." Thus does Tyndal hint at a "revolution of particles." If he means a revolution of etherial particles around the main atoms through some directing lines of force or spiral spring work, then it is clear enough just how this "revolution" can be effected; but if he means that the main atoms revolve spirally around each other without any guiding force, or channel, to systematize this revolution, the mystery is as great as ever; for how could they ever become polarized or crystallized in the midst of this constant whirl, and whence comes their propelling power?
2. Molecular Astronomy. I have just met with a very good synopsis of the views of scientists on these revolutions of atoms which is strangely confirmatory of what I have already been stating with reference to the atomic structure when viewed in one light and yet strangely absurd as a whole. The theory is very pretty, and it is given in All the Year Round, from which I quote the following:—
"Comparing the infinitely small with the infinitely great, it is held that a body, of what kind soever, represents in miniature and very exactly, an astronomical system, like those which we behold every night in the firmament. If we could construct a miscroscope of sufficient power, we should be able, by the help of such an instrument, to resolve the molecular constellations of every little terrestrial milky way, exactly as our first rate telescopes resolve the celestial nebulae and separate double and triple stars. Were our sight sufficiently penetrating we should behold what now appear mere confused heaps of matter, arranged in groups of admirable symmetry. Bodies would appear honeycombed in all directions, daylight would stream through vast interstices as it does through the columns of a temple or the tree trunks of a forest. Nay, we should see immense empty spaces, like those which intervene between the planets. From distance to distance, too, we should perceive clusters of stars, in harmonious order, each surrounded by its own proper atmosphere; and still more astounding spectacle!—every one of those little molecular stars would be found revolving with giddy rapidity, in more or less elongated ovals, exactly like the great stars of heaven; while by increasing the power of our instrument, we should discover around each principle star minor stars—satellites resembling our moon—accomplishing their revolutions swiftly and regularly. This view of the constitution of matter is aptly described by M. de Parville as molecular astronomy, maintaining even that astronomy, without our suspecting it, is dependent on mineralogy; and that whenever we shall have discovered the laws which govern the grouping and the movements of the infinitely small, astronomers will have only to follow in our track. But who, a hundred years ago, could dare to imagine that the infinitely small was so infinitely great? What is now believed to be the nearest guess at the truth appears, at first sight, to be the dream of a madman."
3. This system of molecular astronomy, with its circles within circles, is remarkably in harmony with what I have ascertained must be the law of the atom, working with its spirals and different grades of spirillae, with its flow of small ethereal atoms which revolve around and through the main atoms and its still more delicate atoms that circulate through them. But it is an immense absurdity to suppose that atoms exist at great distances apart in open vacuity, which must at once make them independent of the rest of the universe and cause immediate lawlessness and ruin. It can be shown that the gravitation which holds all worlds in their orbits would at once cease were there not an almost infinite series of atomic pathways held in a beautiful polarity and contiguity by means of sunbeams and starbeams through which the amazingly swift and attractive ethers pass and repass and hold suns and systems to their allegiance.
4. Mr. L. R. Curtiss, in an article on Molecular Magnitudes in the Popular Science Monthly, of Oct. 1877, uses the following language: "As to the shape and internal structure of atoms, there is no definite knowledge, but Helmholtz's studies of certain equations in hydro-kinetics, several years ago, gave rise to the idea that vortex motion in a frictionless medium would exist forever—an assumption which is purely hypothetical; but since the proposition has been enlarged upon by Sir William Thompson— who conjectures that the atoms might be filaments or rings endowed with a vortex motion—the subject assumes a shape better calculated to form the basis of a scientific theory." The above shows that scientists are approaching more and more nearly to the true conception of atoms. But when Helmholtz, Thompson, and others talk about a vortex, they are considering something altogether vague, unless they also admit the necessity of fluidic ethers to sweep through this vortex, for otherwise the atoms must be as lifeless as a windmill without wind.
5. These and many other atomic theories are pretty and ingenious, and give some conception of the immense movements that are ever taking place among atoms, but how these movements occur and why they occur, and what is the philosophy of molecular action, has thus far never been presented, so far as I know. A thousand hypotheses concerning atoms may be propounded; but so long as they are not reduced to definite law and harmonized with the mechanics of nature, they will be entirely unable to unfold the fundamental principles of light, color, heat, electricity, magnetism, physiology, psychology or dynamics of any kind, and the world must continue to build on conjecture.
XLIII. Summation of Points in Chapter Third.
1. Correct science is impossible without a knowledge of atoms.
2. All things are comprised under the terms force and matter.
3. While the largest atoms are inconceivably small, they are vast as compared with those of the finest ethers.
4. The form of atoms must be that of an oblate ovoid, or the shape of an egg flattened somewhat on the sides, from the necessities offeree. This form is not solid, but consists principally of an immensely elastic spring-work of spirals encircled by spirilla; of different grades, which form constant channels offeree. These channels move spirally around the outside of atoms as the principle of expansion and heat, and forming a vortex at the larger end, pass through the center in the other direction, tending to draw the atom in smaller on the principle of cold and electricity.
5. The smaller positive end of the atom has the greater intensity of heat,
11
cold, repulsion and efflux power; the larger vortical or negative end is the point of greatest attraction, and influx power.
6. Ordinary atoms must have certain spirals that are more external and projecting than the others, which are finer and set farther within. The external are known as extra-spirals, the internal, as intra-spirals. These pass within as axial extra-spirals and axial intra spirals.
I. The thermo or extra-spirals are the principle of the ordinary coarser grades of heat, and when passing axially are the principle of the coarser grades of cold and also frictional electricity, which last works much like thermo-electricity. The intra-spirals in transparent bodies are the pathway of the warm or thermal colors, and when moving axially, of the electrical colors. In somewhat coarser and opaque bodies these same spirals become the principle of coarser grades of heat, and when moving axially, of the chemico, galvano and magneto electricities.
8. Atoms in harmony with all mechanical action are kept in movement by fluidic forces. These forces are called ethers and are guided and drawn on by and through the channels called the spirilla;. The finer spirilla; respond to the finer ethers.
9. Ethers have weight, otherwise they could not have momentum.
10. Polar cohesion is caused by the flow of ethers which sweep and draw the positive end of one atom into the larger vortical end of a contiguous one. Lateral cohesion is caused by the contiguity of positive and negative thermo-spirals.
II. The unity of atoms requires that the spirals and spirilla should be connected with each other by various little pillars or tubes from one to the other. These pillars may be termed atomic tendrils.
12. The most common method of polarization among atoms is in converse layers, in which the lines of atoms run side by side, but alternately in opposite directions. Transverse layers are those which cross each other at right angles or nearly so; transverse diagonals, those which cross diagonally and irregularly, while paraverse layers have all the atoms of a layer pointing in the same direction.
13. Heat tends to individualize and disintegrate, cold to organize and make rigid; both combined to create harmony. It is only the coarser grades of heat and cold which are most painful to endure. The finer grades are more soothing and penetrating. The different grades of electricity are simply grades of cold.
14. Polar cohesion is aided by the flow of electricities, and in hard or solid bodies, doubtless, by a special riveting arrangement called the ligo.
15. There are six especial divisions of electricity, 1, the frictional; 2, Chemico electricity; 3, Galvano electricity; 4, Magneto electricity; 5, Chroma electricity; and 6, Psycho electricity. Other grades exist in connection with the fine spirillce, etc. Frictional electricity is the most interior and probably the swiftest, psycho electricity the finest, and chromo-electricity somewhat coarser, while chemico electricity is slow and negative. Unanswerable facts show that the various shades of blue, indigo and violet are electrical.
16. Magnetism consists especially of two leading grades of electricity, the more positive of which is the magneto, the more negative, the chemico, deflected to a great extent into curves by the transverse polarization of the atoms of certain substances through which they pass. The negative, sometimes called the south pole of the magnet, is saturated with the chemico electricity, the positive pole with magneto and perhaps galvano electricity, being stronger in both its attractions and repulsions than the negative pole.
17. Diamagnetic substances are those which have a lateral axis, instead of a longitudinal one like that of the magnet, and this comes from the polarization of its atoms into transverse diagonals.
18. Phosphorescence, like every other style of combustion or chemical action, is always developed in connection with some grade of electricity, whether caused by vital action, the blue color, or otherwise. Its light is of too fine a grade to give the painful heat sensations of ordinary burning objects. (See XXI.)
19. Fluorescence, Calorescence, etc., prove that under the stimulus of chemical or electrical action, fine ethers can sometimes be attracted through spirillce which are naturally too coarse for them, and coarse ethers driven through spirillce naturally too fine for them.
20. In galvanism the acid or other substance used is polarized conversely with the molecules of water, the galvano and magneto electricities passing through the water from the platinum to the zinc, and so on through the circuit, while the chemico electricity passes through the acid in the other direction.
21. In frictional Electricity there are not two kinds of electrical force passing in two directions, as is often supposed.
22. A negatively electrified body, or part of a body, is one in which the influx electrical currents preponderate over the efflux ones, while a positively electrified body, or part of a body, is one in which the efflux currents preponderate over the influx ones. Positiveness of electrical power sometimes depends upon the quantity and tension of electricity in one body as opposed to less of the same in another, and sometimes upon a stronger as opposed to a feebler quality of electricity, as the magneto in one substance as opposed to the chemico in another.
23. Chemical affinity occurs between atoms that have been made full and wide mouthed from their strong thermal and vortical action and those that have been made more narrow from their strong electrical action, especially if some similar grades of ether are able to pass through and connect them both. The most direct affinity occurs between the electro-positives, including the alkalies, and the electro-negatives, including the acids, the former having the more wide mouthed atoms, the latter, the more pointed and electrical atoms. The electrical colors affinitize with the thermal colors.
24. Atoms constitute at once the most perfect of machines and yet possess many leading characteristics of an animal.
25. The reason why the etherio-atomic law is a key to unlock so many mysteries of science, is, that it adopts the system of duality so universal in nature which combines the form and working of atoms as the base work of matter and the vitalizing flow of ethers, as the instruments offeree, neither of which departments can ever be divorced from each other any more than action can be sundered from reaction.
26. The heavier the atom, the more feeble is its capacity for heat.
27. Scientists are right in presuming that atoms revolve around other atoms like planets around their parent sun, but these revolving atoms constitute the ethers which circulate through their spiral orbits around the parent atom. The orbits are brought to the most unerring system by means of the 1st, 2d and 3d spirillce which represent orbits like those of the moon, earth and sun.
28. Thus is an atom an epitome of the universe, having a gradation of elliptical and spiral orbits in imitation of those of the solar system; having its axial center of unity around which its external spirals revolve as a principle of diversity; having its positive end at which repulsion rules, and its negative end at which attraction is the dominant principle; constituting the most marvelous of machines with wheels within wheels driven by water, even the water of ether, some of which is much swifter than the lightning; resembling also an animal with veins, arteries, nerves, spine, viscera, blood, nerve-force, etc. In general form it resembles the egg, which at one time was thought to be the starting point of all life, Harvey having written "omne vivum ex ovo." Atoms indeed are the eggs out of which the whole universe is built, though on quite another principle. Their activities are so amazing that if one of them could be enlarged to the size of a man's head, constructed of some material millions of times stronger than anything known upon earth, and the tremendous whirl of forces set to revolving through their spirals which at their ordinary speed vibrate several hundred trillion times a second, what must be the effect? If such an atom should be set in the midst of New York City, it must create such a whirlwind that all its palatial structures, ships, bridges and surrounding cities, with nearly two millions of people, would be swept into fragments and carried into the sky.
If the reader has become familiar with the foregoing chapters and gained possession of the atomic key, I think we shall be able to go hand in hand through many hidden pathways of power and open new doors in the infinite temple of knowledge.
CHAPTER FOURTH.